Gender Assessment and Recommendations for Enhancing Gender Integration into USAID/RCSA’s Program A project funded by the Office of Women in Development, Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support and Research, U.S. Agency for International Development under contract number FAO-0100-C-00-6005-00 with Development Alternatives, Inc. July 2002 A Women in Development Technical Assistance Project TECH 1717 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Suite 302, Washington, DC 20036 USA Tel.: 202-332-2853 FAX: 202-332-8257 Internet: WIDinfo@widtech.org Development Alternatives, Inc. ! International Center for Research on Women Academy for Educational Development ! Development Associates, Inc. This publication was made possible through support provided by the Office of Women in Development, Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support and Research, U.S. Agency for International Development, under the terms of Contract No. FAO-0100-C-00-6005-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development. Gender Assessment and Recommendations for Enhancing Gender Integration into USAID/RCSA’s Program by Yeshiareg Dejene, WIDTECH Economic Growth and Development Specialist Patricia Martin, Consultant Development Alternatives, Inc. July 2002 TECH A Women in Development Technical Assistance Project A project funded by the Office of Women in Development, Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support and Research, U.S. Agency for International Development under contract number FAO –0100-C-00-6005-00 i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The WIDTECH team would like to express its appreciation to USAID/RCSA for the support and cooperation received during the team’s visit in Gaborone, Botswana. The team also would like to thank the Mission staff, including the Strategic Objective teams, for their interest in discussing issues and providing us with the information and material needed to carry out our assignment. Special appreciation goes to all members of the Supervisory Program Office for the support they provided us throughout this assignment. Our special thanks go to Valencia Msibi, Gender Coordinator, for her support and encouragement during our stay in Gaborone and to Gloria Dlamini for her continued support during our work at the Mission. ii Development Alternatives, Inc. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ix CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 METHODOLOGY 2 ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT 2 CHAPTER TWO BACKGROUND: DEFINITION AND CONCEPTUAL 3 UNDERSTANDING OF GENDER 3 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT: EVOLUTION OF THE THINKING 3 GENDER MAINSTREAMING: UNDERSTANDING THE STRATEGY 4 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT 5 CHAPTER THREE REGIONAL PROFILE: SOUTHERN AFRICA 7 CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN PRIMARY EDUCATION 8 HEALTH 9 GENDER AND POVERTY IN AFRICA 11 THE GENDER NATURE OF EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME IN SOUTHERN AFRICA 11 REGIONAL INTEGRATION: THE SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY (SADC) 14 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT WITHIN SADC 15 PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 16 CHAPTER FOUR GENDER ASSESSMENT OF USAID’S REGIONAL CENTER FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 19 SO1: INCREASED REGIONAL CAPACITY TO INFLUENCE DEMOCRATIC PERFORMANCE 20 Gender Issues in Democracy and Governance in Southern Africa 21 Summary of Gender Equality Activities and Results under SO1 23 Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO1 25 Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO1 27 Recommendations for Strengthening SO1 Cross-Sectoral Linkages with Other SOs 28 SO2: A MORE INTEGRATED REGIONAL MARKET 28 Gender and Macroeconomic Issues 29 Gender Issues and Trade Liberalization 30 Gender, Trade, and Investment within SADC 32 Gender and Informal Cross-Border Trade in Southern Africa 34 Summary of Gender Equality Activities under SO2 35 Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO2 36 Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO2 41 iv Development Alternatives, Inc. Recommendations for Strengthening SO2 Cross-sectoral Linkages with Other Strategic Objectives 42 SO12: INCREASED REGIONAL COOPERATION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SHARED NATURAL RESOURCES 43 Gender Issues in Environment and Natural Resource Management in Southern Africa 43 Summary of Gender Equality under SO12 47 Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO12 50 Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO12 52 Recommendations for Strengthening SO12 Cross-Sectoral Linkages with Other SOs 55 SO13: EXPANDED COMMERCIAL MARKETS FOR AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES AND COMMODITIES IN SADC 55 Gender and Agricultural Productivity 56 Gender and Agricultural Market Liberalization 57 Summary of Gender Considerations under SO13 59 Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO13 60 Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO13 64 Recommendations for Strengthening SO13 Cross-Sectoral Linkages with Other SOs 64 CHAPTER FIVE STRENGTHENING USAID/RCSA’S INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY FOR SYSTEMATIC GENDER INTEGRATION IN PROGRAM PORTFOLIOS 67 BIBLIOGRAPHY 69 ANNEX A: SCOPE OF WORK A-1 ANNEX B: PERSONS CONTACTED B-1 ANNEX C: DRAFT POINTS FOR A MISSION ORDER ON GENDER C-1 ANNEX D: REPORT OF WIDTECH GENDER TRAINING FOR RCSA D-1 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Gross and Net School Enrollment Rates by Sex, 1980-1999 8 2 Indicators of Well-being—Health and Adult Literacy 9 3 Labor Force Structure by Sector and Sex in Southern Africa 12 4 Real Gross Domestic Product per capita by Sex, 1998 13 vi Development Alternatives, Inc. vii LIST OF ACRONYMS ADS Automated Directives System AGOA African Growth and Opportunity Act ASCCI Association of SADC Chambers of Commerce CAMPFIRE Communal Area Management Program for Indigenous Resources CBNRM Community-Based Natural Resource Management CBO Community Based Organization CBTA Cross-Border Traders Association EGAT/WID Economic Growth, Agriculture and Trade/Office of Women in Development ELS Employment and Labor Sector EPZ Export Processing Zones FESARATA Federation for East and Southern African Road Transport Association FISCU Finance and Investment Sector Coordinating Unit FISCU Finance and Investment Sector Coordinating Unit FTA Free Trade Area GAD Gender and Development GDP Gross Domestic Product GEM Gender Empowerment Measure GKG Gaza-Kruger-Gonarezhou ICRW International Center for Research on Women ILO International Labour Organization IMPACT Implementing AIDS Prevention and Care Project IR Intermediary Results ISA Initiative for Southern Africa ITC International Trade Commission IWID Investing in Women in Development MISA Media Institute of Southern Africa MP Members of Parliament NETCAB Networking and Capacity Building Initiative for Southern Africa NGO Nongovernmental Organization NRM Natural Resource Management NTAE Non-Traditional Agricultural Export NTB Non-tariff Barriers OECD/DAC Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development/Development Assistance Committee PF Parliamentary Forum PMP Performance Monitoring Plan PPP Purchasing Power Parity RAPID Regional Activity to Promote Integration Through Dialogue and Policy implementation RCSA Regional Center for Southern Africa RFA Request for Assistance SADC Southern African Development Community viii Development Alternatives, Inc. SADCC Southern African Development Coordination Conference SAEN Southern African Enterprise Network SAHRIT Human Rights Trust of Southern Africa SAP Strategic Action Programme SARDF Southern Africa Regional Democracy Fund SARRNET Southern Africa Root Crops Research Network SME Small and Medium Enterprises SMIP Sorghum and Millet Improvement Project SNA System of National Accounts SO Strategic Objectives SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary SSA Sub-Sahara Africa STRENGTH Strengthening Regional Economies Through Non-governmental Organizations TBNRMA Trans-boundary Natural Resource Management Areas TRASA Telecommunications Regulators Association of Southern Africa UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNIFEM Untied Nations Development Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development WID Women in Development WIDTECH Women in Development Technical Assistance Project WIEGO Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing WiLDAF Women in Law and Development in Africa WIPP Women in Politics Project ZIMOZA Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Zambia ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa (RCSA), based in Gaborone, Botswana, was established in 1994 under the Initiative for Southern Africa. This regional approach is aimed at supporting 11 Southern African countries (Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) to achieve equitable, sustainable economic growth and strong democratic governance. The goal of RCSA’s Strategic Plan (1997-2003) reflects that aim and complements the development agenda of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). There are four Strategic Objectives (SOs) under the current strategic plan: (1) increased regional capacity to influence democratic performance, (2) a more integrated regional market, (3) increased regional cooperation in the management of shared natural resources, and (4) expanded commercial markets for agricultural technologies and commodities in the SADC region. To begin integrating gender into RCSA’s programs, the Mission requested technical assistance from the Women in Development Technical Assistance (WIDTECH) Project funded by USAID’s Office of Women in Development. The assistance was provided for two principal tasks—conducting a gender assessment and making recommendations for a Gender plan of action, and implementing gender training for Mission and its partners. This report includes reports of both tasks, with the body of the report summarizing findings from the gender assessment. Annex D is the report of the gender training. A summary of major findings and recommendations from the assessment are noted below. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM THE GENDER ASSESSMENT Initially RCSA’s Strategic Plan of 1997-2003 made little reference about how gender issues would be taken into account in programming, monitoring and evaluation. The Mission’s Performance Monitoring Plan of 1999, however, illustrated mechanisms and ways in which the Mission planned to enhance program results through the application of gender-equity concepts and methodologies. To more fully integrate gender considerations in its operation, RCSA named a Gender Coordinating Officer. The Mission also acknowledged that gender integration would be challenging, given the regional focus of the Mission and the reality that gender issues and strategies emerge from and must respond to local norms and circumstances. SO1: Increased Regional Capacity to Influence Democratic Performance This Strategic Objective provides support to key regional organizations that foster and advocate democratic “best practices” in Southern Africa. All SO1 activities contribute to increasing regional capacity in support of democracy. The three Intermediate Results under this Strategic Objective are sequentially interrelated with increased information sharing leading to increased advocacy based in shared regional experience and, finally, to the development of regional democratic norms in the three core program areas: (1) elections and x Development Alternatives, Inc. election processes; (2) media pluralism, diversity, and freedom; and (3) anti-corruption initiatives. Gender Assessment Findings Looking at women’s participation in politics and decision making in Southern African countries, one finds favorable conditions as compared with other African countries. The average percentage of women in Parliament (2000) for SADC countries stands at 17 percent, higher than the average for sub-Saharan Africa (9 percent) and the Americas and Europe (15 percent). The percentage of women in cabinets for the region is 13.4 percent, ranging from 29.6 percent in South Africa to 21.4 percent in the Seychelles to 4 percent in Mauritius. The representation of women in local governance participation ranges from 52 percent in the Seychelles to 41 percent in Namibia to 6.3 percent in Zambia and 3.1 percent in Zimbabwe. While these figures compare favorably with those of the rest of Africa and much of the rest of the world, they reflect an under-representation of women in decision-making structures. Moreover, there are stark differences among the countries. Despite the gains in women’s political participation in the region, discriminatory laws still exist, especially in the field of family law. Dual legal systems (statutory and customary) remain in effect in all SADC countries. Unequal marriage, inheritance, and property laws based in customary law deny women their full legal capacity, in spite of guarantees of gender equality in many countries’ constitutions. Similarly, media reporting and advertising mirror societal attitudes toward women, reflecting a patriarchal perspective. Traditional male female roles are deeply instilled in the mass media, to such extent that even women have become desensitized to their own inferior portrayal. Further, the portrayal of women in the media is linked to “newsworthiness.” Sensationalism takes precedence over the careful collection and analysis of data, and this becomes the context for reporting on issues such as violence against women. Other factors that affect women’s participation in politics and decision making include low education and poverty. Women, however, have been organizing themselves regionally for information and advocacy purposes. RCSA’s assistance under SO1 has contributed to integrating attention to gender into programs, particularly in the area of elections and political processes. Summaries of these activities and their results are presented below Elections and Political Processes ƒ One of the first grants under the Southern Africa Regional Democracy Fund (SARDF) was provided to Women in Law and Development in Africa (WiLDAF), a regional women’s nongovernmental organization, to implement a three-year pilot project— Women in Politics Project (WIPP)—was carried out in four countries (Mozambique, Malawi, Namibia, and Swaziland). Surveys on women and politics were conducted in xi each country, and results were shared in workshops. The empirical data helped strengthen advocacy work in the region. ƒ RCSA supports Engendering SADC Parliaments. This activity seeks to facilitate good governance through promoting gender equality by building capacity of members of Parliament to advocate for increased representation and participation by women in politics and decision making. ƒ Gender issues were taken into consideration in training Election Observers. A gender workshop was held to identify ways to increase women’s representation in political life through elections. Media Pluralism, Diversity, and Freedom ƒ Support was provided through a grant to the Southern African Broadcasters’ Association for training women broadcast journalists and expanding coverage of gender issues. ƒ Support for the Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) has not included attention to gender, but MISA is reported to have a gender program. Anti-Corruption ƒ Gender issues have not been a focus of this RCSA-supported activity to date, but gender equality is stated as an institutional value of the principal implementing partner, the Human Rights Trust of Southern Africa (SAHRIT). Recommendations Elections and Political Processes ƒ Assess the results achieved by the Engendering SADC Parliaments activity and the sustainability of the mechanisms it supported (Gender Advisory Team, Regional Gender Caucus, regional gender database, and resource center). Sustaining the capacity and mechanisms developed will be important in achieving and maintaining greater political participation by women and in addressing gender-based legal status and reform issues, and gender issues related to HIV/AIDS throughout the region. ƒ Support identification and dissemination, through the SADC Parliamentary Forum, of regional best practices for increasing women’s participation at all levels of decision making in terms of absolute and percentage increases. This should include improving women’s knowledge, interest, and involvement in politics. ƒ Support gender analysis of data from the first round of surveys of the Southern Africa Democracy Barometer. This analysis should identify any gender differences in knowledge, attitudes and participation, and actions to address existing differences. xii Development Alternatives, Inc. Media Pluralism, Diversity, and Freedom ƒ Support strengthening MISA and its national chapters to incorporate a gender focus in outreach and advocacy training. For example, MISA could identify and address gender bias in the media, thereby supporting media freedom and broadening women and women’s organizations input to and interaction with the media. Anti-Corruption ƒ Support advocacy for ratification and implementation of the SADC Anti-Corruption Protocol. This should include attention to the negative impact on women of corruption, which distorts an already uneven playing field for women. Because women rarely have the resources and power to access and influence corrupt institutions and systems, women are even more likely to be victimized by corruption than are men. SO2: A More Integrated Regional Market The rationale for this Strategic Objective is that deeper regional integration promotes higher economic growth through better resource allocation, greater competition, increased transfer of technology, increased access to foreign savings, and improved food security. It is also believed that macroeconomic policy, trade reform, and the improvement of physical infrastructure are key elements affecting the pace and success of integration. The activities under this Strategic Objective work toward the achievement of the following results: (1) reducing trade and investment barriers; (2) developing more efficient provision of infrastructure; and (3) building the long-term capacity of private sector and industry associations to advocate for and sustain policy reforms. RCSA’s activities under SO2 are also geared toward supporting SADC’s agenda for market integration and the establishment of a Free Trade Area as articulated in its Trade Protocol. Reducing trade and investment barriers (IR1): Activities related to this result include the following: (1) Customs, Cooperation, and Trade Facilitation: RCSA actively supported the negotiation process on the rules of origin for textiles and clothing. It was noted that other rules of origin negotiations for wheat and wheat products are coming, and support will be provided in the form of technical assistance. (2) Trade Policy Capacity Strengthening of SADC Directorate of Trade, Industry, Finance and Investment: Under SO2, RCSA provides support to SADC’s Finance and Investment Sector Coordinating Unit and the Secretariat by placing a senior economist and a trade advisor in the two units. (3) Sanitary and Phytosanitary Sanitary Measures: RCSA also supports initiatives aimed at developing an annex to the SADC Trade Protocol on sanitary and phytosanitary measures as a tool to ensure health and safety of products and guarantee quality measured by xiii international standards. To harmonize these measures, an inventory of sanitary and phytosanitary measures within SADC countries will be implemented. (4) The African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) activity supports the above three areas of RCSA’s work under SO2. Developing more efficient provision of infrastructure (IR2): RCSA supports the implementation of transport sector reforms to create a more market-oriented and competitive environment. In communications, RCSA’s support has contributed to increasing the speed for SADC’s telecommunications policy reform. The support in this area has focused in drafting the protocol and model for legislation and on the establishment of the early development of the Telecommunications Regulators Association of the Southern Africa. Building long-term capacity of private sector and industry associations to advocate for and sustain policy reforms (IR3): This result aims to strengthen the capacity of private associations to advocate for policy reforms in the region. Capacity-enhancing support is provided to private associations through Strengthening Regional Economies Through Non￾governmental Organizations (STRENGTH). Support has been in the form of training in financial management, business plan development, management, and advocacy plans. Only two of the associations supported under this activity have a reasonable number of women members whereas the rest are male-dominated associations. Support has been provided to strengthen the capacity of private sector organizations with a large number of women memberships—for example, the Southern African Enterprise Network (SAEN). RCSA also supported the participation of women entrepreneurs at the “Leadership and Linkages for Women in Trade and Investment” conference held in Gaborone in February 2002. Gender Assessment Findings To identify key activities for gender integration under this Strategic Objective, it is important to examine how trade liberalization differentially affects men and women. For example, questions could be asked about the degree to which gender inequality is a constraint for increasing trade liberalization and economic growth; the positive and negative impacts of trade liberalization measures on informal employment in which women are strongly represented; and the impact of trade liberalization measures on labor standards and how those affect men and women’s labor force participation. Do trade liberalization measures exacerbate existing gender inequalities in employment and income and other social sector areas? What are the gender-based constraints that women entrepreneurs face in accessing markets? How will rules of origin negotiations affect the livelihoods of many men and women in small and medium-sized enterprises engaged in regional activity and not big enough to be registered or may operate informally? What needs to be done to simplify the procedure of regional trade practices to allow increased participation of women’s SME? Finally, a large number of men and women in the region are engaged in informal cross￾border trade, so knowing how these informal livelihoods will be affected by trade xiv Development Alternatives, Inc. liberalization efforts is critical to reducing gender-based constraints and thereby improving productivity. Recommendations ƒ Promote greater understanding of gender, macroeconomic, and trade issues within the region through studies and workshops. ƒ Promote simplified trading procedures and rules—that is, the certification process for rules of origin—to enhance participation of small-scale businesses, a large number of which are owned by or employ women, in the regional trade. ƒ Study market institutions from a gender perspective and determine factors that limit women traders’ access to local and regional input and output markets. ƒ Support advocacy and policy dialogue efforts of the civil society for improved labor standards and the adoption of core labor standards of the International Labour Organization by all SADC member countries. ƒ Increase support to women’s business associations in mobilizing efforts to influence policy making in the region. ƒ Strengthen support to Cross-Border Traders Association and monitor the participation of women and men traders. Ensure that all informal cross-border traders are informed about the policy reforms and new trade regulations being implemented that may affect their businesses. Identify the communication channels men and women use to access this information. SO12: Increased Regional Cooperation in the Management of Shared Natural Resources SO12 seeks to increase cooperation by national governments and communities in the management of shared watercourses, critical ecosystems, and migratory wildlife through the creation of trans-boundary natural resource management areas (TBNRMAs), which are large tracts of land straddling the boundaries of two or more countries that share a large-scale ecosystem. For example, efforts are underway to establish two TBNRMAs, the Gaza-Kruger￾Gonarezhou (GKG) area joining Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, and the Four Corners areas (Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe). Technical assistance and implementation agreements were initiated for both TBNRMAs, and contractors or grantees were in place by mid-2001. SO12 focuses on achieving four results: (1) viable practices for sustainable management of shared natural resources adopted; (2) policies, protocols and agreements enacted; (3) xv organizations and institutions capable of effective regional intervention; and (4) ecological monitoring systems for decision making improved. Gender Assessment Findings Numerous studies indicated that, because of differing gender roles, men and women frequently use different resources or use the same resources differently and therefore develop different knowledge and expertise associated with these use patterns. Men and women are also affected differently by resource scarcity, degradation, and depletion. To better manage the resource base and improve community welfare, it is essential that conservation and development efforts take into account these gender differences, understand differing incentives to manage resources effectively, and involve both women and men in decision making with regard to resource use and conservation. For example, women in Southern Africa rely upon wild plants for food, medicines, construction, tools, and income generation. Baskets made by women from palm leaves in Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Zambia constitute an important craft export, while tubers of the grapple plant found in western Botswana are exported for use as arthritis medicine. Women are also active in the capture and processing of wildlife. In Zambia, for example, women rarely participate in elephant hunts but inform men when elephants are sighted; after the kill, women perform most of the butchering, and they process the meat and other products. In Botswana, women collect wild birds’ eggs, including those of the ostrich; prepare the yolks for consumption; and use the cleaned out eggshells as water containers. In Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, women gather caterpillars for sale to buyers who sell them in urban markets. In parts of northern Botswana, women communally engage in river fishing, using baskets. In Zimbabwe and Zambia, fish processing and marketing are done primarily by women. Despite the significant roles women play in using and maintaining natural resources in Southern Africa, both customary and modern laws inhibit women from having user and ownership rights to land and other natural resources. Moreover, at both the institutional and the family levels, women tend to be excluded from decisions concerning land use and natural resource management. Men make most decisions on the use and allocation of resources at the household level and represent women in all matters connected to land and in local governance. Women may feel unable to make key decisions in their husbands’ absence because they fear making any changes in the status quo. SO12 documentation includes references to the importance of participation by women as well as men in natural resource management and notes that gender-disaggregated data on communities will be collected. Implementing partners and contractors are obliged to monitor gender impacts. Nonetheless, evidence of efforts to address gender issues in SO12 is limited. For instance, the Request for Applications for the GKG TBNRMA reportedly included a requirement to address gender, and the winning proposal mentioned that gender would be addressed in promoting community natural resource-based economic activities and that short￾term technical assistance on gender would be provided. However, these activities have not xvi Development Alternatives, Inc. yet been initiated. Similarly, no specific provisions or requirements were specified as to how participation by both women and men would be promoted at the community stakeholder level through participation in decision-making initiatives within TBNRMAs. Similarly, specific measures to ensure participation and benefit for both women and men in community￾based enterprises have not yet been put in place. Under this Strategic Objective, support is also provided for development and ratification of SADC’s Environment and Wildlife Protocols. Yet there is no indication that a guide to natural resource-based community tourism includes any attention to gender. Finally, the Regional Networking and Capacity Building Initiative for Southern Africa (NETCAB) aims to enhance the capacity of Southern Africa’s government institutions, NGOs, and community-based organizations to address regional environmental policy and natural resource management issues more effectively. Support for gender integration under this initiative has been limited to reporting training and workshop participants by sex. In conclusion, more concerted and systematic efforts need to be given to enhance attention to gender under this Strategic Objective. Recommendations ƒ Support site-specific studies within TBNRMAs to determine resource use, control or ownership, management, and benefit by all population groups—by sex, age ethnicity, and other relevant variables. ƒ Provide technical assistance and training to contractors and grantee for each TBNRMA and issue a formal notice to each that attention to gender in technical assistance, implementation actions, and reporting is required and will be monitored by RCSA. If necessary, a modification should be made to the Cooperative Agreement for Four Corners to require attention to gender. ƒ For future TBNRMAs, ensure that RFAs and similar solicitation documents require attention to gender, with specificity as to areas where attention to gender is essential; require staff to have gender expertise and financial resources; support gender integration; and include attention to gender in scoring proposals. ƒ Promote attention to gender in SADC protocols and related regional policies and agreements with regard to natural resources, for which gender is a relevant factor, in collaboration with the SADC Gender Unit. ƒ Regional organizations, NGOs, and community-based organizations should be assisted to develop their capacity to advocate and implement NRM policies and programs with a gender focus, to promote women’s participation in and benefit from CBNRM, and to provide gender-sensitive environmental education, including developing their capacity to provide gender training. xvii ƒ Support the development of community-based ecological monitoring methodologies that emphasize the involvement of both women and men, and ensure that both men and women understand the impact of their activities on natural resources. SO13: Expanded Commercial Markets for Agricultural Technologies and Commodities in the SADC Region This Strategic Objective builds on USAID’s success in agricultural research on drought￾tolerant crops such as sorghum, millet, cassava, and sweet potatoes and on control of heart water disease. More than 40 varieties of these crops and several animal health products have been researched and field tested and are ready for use in marginal lands and on large scale. Activities under this Strategic Objective seek to expand the market for higher quality commodities and improved agricultural technology. Four major results are intended to be achieved under this Strategic Objective: (1) Laws, Regulations, and Policies Enacted that Increase Trade of Agricultural Technologies and Commodities. Under this result, RCSA’s efforts have focused on strengthening the capacity of regional institutions to develop and enforce policies, laws, and regulations. To this end, target countries have been selected to implement activities related to regional seed trade and possibly vaccines. Activities have been underway to define simpler and more appropriate (to industry) measures for meeting sorghum grain standards for regional and global application. Inventories of existing national sanitary and phytosanitary standards and food safety regulations have been completed in Mauritius, Namibia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. Plans are underway to complete inventories in Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland. The goal is to harmonize the sanitary and phytosanitary standards and upgrade them to regional and global market conditions. (2) Adoption Increased for Improved Agricultural Technologies and Practices. Activities under this result are geared to enhancing adoption rates of farmers growing sorghum, pearl millet, cassava, and sweet potato. Target countries for sorghum and millet are Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe and for cassava and sweet potato, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia. The aim is to promote the development of markets for new technologies, including seed varieties, value-added processing at the household and commercial levels, crop management, post-harvest handling, storage, standards, grades, and marketing. A recent survey showed increased adoption rate of sorghum and pearl millet whereas the adoption of cassava remained behind target. (3) Private Sector Participation Increased in Delivery Systems for Improved Agricultural Technologies. Increasing the supply of improved technologies will be achieved through collaborative efforts, involving government institutions, the private sector, NGOs, and farmers. It was noted that projects would use participatory methods for evaluation of production systems. For example, in Tanzania and Zimbabwe, a participatory field-testing process was used to increase the use of improved crop varieties, improved manure quality, moderate amounts of manure and/or chemical xviii Development Alternatives, Inc. fertilizer, and legume rotation. However, it is important to note that participatory approaches do not guarantee equal participation of women and men unless concerted efforts are applied to have a gender balance. (4) New Sustainable Agricultural Technologies and Practices Developed. This result seeks to increase the impact of improved technologies by developing crop and soil management practices and new products and processes that increase demand. RCSA facilitates the dissemination of better information on markets for selected commodities to farmers who make decisions on whether to adopt new management practices. Gender Assessment Findings Although women in Southern Africa greatly contribute to agricultural productivity, little effort has been made under SO13 to enhance gender integration into programs and activities.1 Even though the 1999 Performance Monitoring Plan makes note of the need to collect sex￾disaggregated data on project participation, there is little evidence that this actually has taken place. SO13 needs to take account of the gender-based constraints to ensure both women and men are active beneficiaries of its activities if its intended results are to be achieved. The following points illustrate some of the critical elements of gender issues in agricultural productivity and agricultural trade. Studies carried out in sub-Saharan Africa concluded that, because women are the backbone of agriculture, it is a missed opportunity to ignore the importance of women’s role as laborers in production, post-harvest processing, storage, and trade of agricultural products and locally processed food. Gender-based division of labor and intra-household gender relations in the decision making about distribution of resources and women’s access to and control over productive resources are critical factors that need to be considered in planning and implementing projects and in measuring results. Understanding the gender division of labor in agriculture is key to understanding the factors that affect productivity in the sector. Men typically produce cash crops, whereas women are primarily involved in producing crops for household consumption and local markets. Women also provide labor on male family members’ plots. These multiple labor demands and women’s limited access to land and other factors of production constrain their productivity. Women’s lack of ownership and inheritance rights, particularly in terms of land and housing, and lack of access to and control over productive resources constrains their productivity and impacts the household and national economies. Women also have less access to credit. In the region, women receive less than 10 percent of all loans provided to small farmers and only 1 percent of total agriculture credit. Women’s 1 The WIDTECH team did not have the opportunity to interview staff from this Strategic Objective team because the team leader position has been vacant for some time. xix lack of collateral (including land), low levels of literacy and numeracy, and limited access to input and output markets and market information seriously impact on women’s productivity. Recommendations ƒ Given that RCSA works to harmonize policy and regulatory frameworks for the liberalization of agricultural trade in the region, it is important to examine how the implementation of these frameworks, for instance, the sanitary and phytosanitary standards, impact on women’s trade in agricultural goods. ƒ As RCSA activities work directly with farmers at the community level, it is critical that information on gender-differentiated positions of women and men with regard to access to land, technologies, credit, markets, and market information be collected. Without this information, it is difficult to determine how much women and men are benefiting from RCSA-supported projects. ƒ Support existing associations of women’s farmers and assist in the formation of new ones, and enhance their capacities to advocate at the regional level. Promote regional dialogue on gender, agricultural trade liberalization, and market integration issues. ƒ Ensure that RCSA-supported implementing agencies systematically target women farmers to increase their participation in developing and testing new technologies and improved farming practices. ƒ Explore the use of incentives for private sector technology developers to invest in engaging women as clients, and monitor women and men farmers’ adoption of different technologies in both productive and household spheres. ƒ Make efforts to ensure information on newly developed technologies reach both men and women. Recommendations for Enhancing Cross-sectoral Linkages between Strategic Objectives USAID/RCSA is keen to enhance collaborative initiatives across sectors, thus strengthening the development and implementation of activities involving two or more Strategic Objective teams. Such initiatives have already begun to take place. For instance, the inventory of sanitary and phytosanitary standards involves both the SO2 and SO13 teams. The following recommendations suggest ways in which linkages within Strategic Objectives could be strengthened. ƒ As an element in RCSA support for strengthening gender capacity in the SADC Parliamentary Forum, strengthen the capacity of regional legislatures through information, training, and technical assistance to identify and address through legislation xx Development Alternatives, Inc. or legal reform gender issues affecting other RCSA Strategic Objectives, such as trade policy, property right/land rights, natural resource management, and HIV/AIDS. ƒ Anti-corruption activities should emphasize the impact of corruption on all areas of life and all segments of the population, specifically women. Outreach and advocacy guidelines and training should explicitly highlight the effects of corruption on trade and natural resource management, including how its effects may differ by gender, in order to help build a greater constituency for anti-corruption efforts. ƒ SO1 has already established a close working relationship with the SADC’s Parliamentary Forum and provides direct technical assistance to enhance its effectiveness. This linkage could be a fertile ground for SO2 to promote better understanding among SADC Parliamentarian Forum, civil society, and other relevant parties about the convergence of gender, trade, and investment, including macroeconomic policy reform. Moreover, the provision of gender capacity building enables Parliamentarians to make informed decisions. Collaboration with the SADC Gender Unit could be sought because the unit seeks to carry out similar activities. ƒ Because of the close link between agriculture, natural resource use, and property rights, efforts to enhance women’s decision making, use, and rights over natural resources, especially land, should also enhance women’s agricultural productivity and ability to engage in agricultural-processing activities, which contribute both to food security and family income. Recommendations to Improve Gender-Sensitive Performance Monitoring ƒ It would be useful to highlight in the narrative of the annual performance report, perhaps in the introductory summary of the Strategic Objectives, how efforts have been made to address gender issues in all core activities under the Strategic Objectives. It is important to include information about efforts to build gender capacity as a fundamental means to influence policy making and program results. ƒ To achieve a relatively high level of confidence, gender-related indicators based on indexes should clearly specify how the dimensions included in the index are assessed and measured, and the relative weight of each factor or dimension in the index if they are not all weighted equally. (Available descriptions of the current indicators do not make this sufficiently clear.) Dimensions relating to gender should be weighed at least equally to their dimensions. ƒ At the planning stage, identify key gender-sensitive indicators that would measure the progress made toward the achievement of results that would equally benefit both women and men, and design data collection system that would allow gathering sex-disaggregated data as a starting point for gender analysis. xxi Recommendations for Strengthening USAI/RCSA’s Institutional Capacity for Systematic Gender Integration in Program Portfolios ƒ Establish a Gender Committee (see Annex C) comprising representatives of all Strategic Objective offices, Contracting Office, Supervisory Program Office, Legal Office, and other relevant units. Terms of Reference need to be developed for the Gender Committee. The role of the Gender Coordinator on the Committee needs to be clearly defined. ƒ Identify key staff who would be responsible for gender issues within each Strategic Objective team and other units and would represent the teams and units in the Gender Committee. ƒ The Gender Coordinator should have a job description. Adequate time needs to be formally allocated for this portion of her work. ƒ Because much of RCSA’s work focuses on trade liberalization and market integration activities (SO2 and SO13) and given that these Strategic Objectives operate in a complex environment, there is need to strengthen these teams’ gender capacity so they can adequately address gender issues in their programs. It is recommended that RCSA explores ways to recruit an Investing in Women in Development (IWID) Fellow with strong trade and gender background. ƒ Initiate gender training, workshops, and seminars, and create other initiatives to enhance staff’s knowledge and capacity to adequately integrate gender issues within their respective program portfolios. ƒ Explore reward mechanisms to ensure staff efforts and success in gender integration within their program portfolio. ƒ Initiate cooperation and collaboration with other donor agencies working on gender issues at regional level for information sharing and networking. ƒ Initiate collaboration with the SADC Gender Unit. 1 Chapter One—Introduction CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The United States Agency for International Development has a long history of commitment to ensuring women are beneficiaries of its development assistance and has played a leadership role among bilateral development agencies to enhance the economic, social, and political conditions of women in developing countries. USAID established its Office of Women in Development 1974 and adopted the Women in Development (WID) Policy in 1982, which framed the WID issue primarily as an economic development issue. The policy noted that inadequate understanding of women’s roles, within and outside the household, had led to inappropriate planning and implementation of development assistance programs, which undercuts achievement of results. In 1995, the U.S. government reaffirmed its commitment to gender equality during the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing and adopted the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action along with 189 other countries. Following the conference, USAID issued its Gender Plan of Action in March 1996 and set targets to more effectively increase integration of gender into all aspects program and policy development. USAID further took actions to make sure that gender considerations are reflected in all operational procedures and practices. For instance, in the revision of the Automated Directives System (ADS 2000 and 300 series) in August 2000, the Agency mandated the inclusion of gender in strategic plans (ADS 201.3.62), in technical analyses (ADS 201.3.4.11), in performance monitoring and evaluation systems (ADS 201.3.4.13, in contracts and cooperatives agreements designed and grants awarded after the revised Agency Strategic Plan (ADS 201.3.6.3), and in technical evaluation criteria for statements of work or program descriptions. To begin integrating gender into the programs of the USAID Regional Center for Southern Africa, (RCSA), the Mission requested technical assistance from the Women in Development Technical Assistance (WIDTECH) Project funded by USAID’s Office of Women in Development. The assistance was provided for two principal tasks—conducting a gender assessment and making recommendations for a gender plan of action, and implementing gender training for Mission and its partners. This report includes reports of both tasks, with the body of the report summarizing findings from the gender assessment. Annex D is the report of the gender training. Based in Gaborone, Botswana, RCSA was established in 1994 under the Initiative for Southern Africa (ISA). This regional approach aims at supporting 11 Southern African countries (Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) to achieve equitable, sustainable economic growth and strong democratic governance. The goal of the RCSA’s Strategic Plan (1997- 2003) is to promote “equitable sustainable economic growth in a democratic Southern Africa.” This goal also complements the developmental goals of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The Strategic Objectives (SOs) under this strategy focus 2 Development Alternatives, Inc. on four major areas: democracy, market integration, natural resource management, and agriculture. These also complement USAID’s bilateral efforts in the region. METHODOLOGY A team of two gender experts—WIDTECH’s economic growth specialist and a consultant— carried out a gender assessment using primary and secondary information. The team reviewed the following documents: ƒ RCSA Strategy Paper 1995-2003; ƒ Semi-annual Results Review for individual Strategic Objectives; ƒ Performance Monitoring Plan and Amendments for all Strategic Objectives; ƒ USAID Policy on Gender Mainstreaming; ƒ ADS Guidelines (200 and 300 series) on gender integration; ƒ Background materials on gender and sectoral areas relevant to RCSA; and ƒ Literature on gender and SADC. The team also interviewed selected staff of USAID/Africa Bureau; staff of RCSA and selected implementing agencies; and staff of selected partners such as UNDP, SADC, and local women’s NGO.2 Based on that information, the team identified areas where gender was of particular relevance and where attention to gender could maximize results.3 The team examined gender constraints within each Strategic Objective area and provided recommendations on how gender considerations could be integrated more systematically into RCSA’s current and future strategic activities. ORGANIZATION OF THE REPORT Definitions of “gender” and the conceptual understanding of the gender and development approach are summarized in Chapter Two. Chapter Three provides background information on the progress and challenges in the Southern Africa region in terms of economic development performance, social sector development, and poverty and looks at the gender dimension across sectors. The policy changes and institutional framework put in place to address gender inequalities within SADC are also briefly assessed. Chapter Four provides a gender assessment of USAID/RCSA’s program portfolios and recommends actions to enhance attention to gender. Chapter Five suggests actions to strengthen the institutional capacity of RCSA to adequately address gender-based inequalities in programs. 2 A list of interviewees is attached as Annex B. 3 See attached Scope of Work, Annex A. 3 Chapter Two—Background: Definition and Conceptual Understanding of Gender CHAPTER TWO BACKGROUND: DEFINITION AND CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING OF GENDER This section discusses the conceptual development and change over time in the approach and strategies for advancing gender equality and women’s empowerment at the global level as well as within the African context. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT: EVOLUTION OF THE THINKING The development assistance approach of the 1950s and 1960s placed great importance on women’s reproductive role as mothers, and, therefore, many of the projects aimed at improving women’s role as care givers to their families, particularly their children. This is captured in the term “reproductive sphere.” Women were considered passive beneficiaries of development assistance, and there was a belief among development practitioners that women should become more engaged in productive activities. What development planners were not aware of, at that time, was that women in developing countries were already in the productive sphere. Indeed, their work in this sphere was “invisible” because it was not recorded in national statistics. Ester Boserup’s4 research findings in Africa in the 1970s, through empirical evidence on the level and intensity of women’s labor, contributed to agricultural production in the region. The research further showed how agricultural development projects targeted to increase productivity through technological inputs adversely affected women’s traditional status and increased work for women without necessarily increasing their incomes. As the result of these findings, there was increased attention to include women’s activities, not only as mothers but as producers and traders. The WID approach, which was introduced in mid-1970s, sees women as untapped resources capable of contributing to the economic development of their households, communities, and countries.5 Although the WID approach raised global awareness about women’s issues and helped women mobilize and organize themselves for change around issues that were significant to them, it failed to challenge the institutional frameworks that perpetuated gender inequalities in the first place. The approach sought to incorporate women into development practices—for example, through the provision of micro-credit and income-generating employment. Supporting women through women-only projects was said to have led to further marginalization of women’s efforts. The focus on “gender” came in recognition of the limitations of the WID approach and was influenced by academic researchers. The gender and development (GAD) analytical frameworks focused on the processes and relations that re-create and reinforce inequalities between women and men. Most were developed in the 1990s.6 4 Boserup, E., Women’s Role in Economic Development, New York, 1970. 5 Moser, C., Gender Planning and Development, London, 1993. 6 OECD/DAC, “Sourcebook on Concepts and Approaches Linked to Gender Equality,” 1998. 4 Development Alternatives, Inc. The term “gender,” according to the OECD/DAC, refers to “…the economic, social, political and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female. In most societies, men and women differ in the activities they undertake, in access and control of resources and participation in decision making.”7 Women’s access to and control over resources are also determined by women’s race, ethnicity, and class, and these determine their positions in places of dominance or subordination. The gender and development approach recognizes that gender differences can change over time and bases its analysis on (1) roles men and women play in society; (2) power relationship between men and women with regards to decision making as it impacts their access to and control over productive resources; and (3) structures of economic, social, legal, and cultural institutions that govern and shape the lives of men and women. Gender analysis8 that focuses on these areas determines the opportunities and constraints men and women have in accessing and using resources that are crucial to achieving economic growth and poverty reduction. Although there is increasing acceptance of the gender and development approach, policy makers and development practitioners continue to ask, Why do gender and development strategies still focus on women? The answer is that, because women as compared with men are in a more disadvantaged position in terms of accessing resources and neglected from having equal voice and participation in decision making, there is still a need to overcome constraints unique to women.9 But, increasingly, attention is being paid to involving both men and women in efforts to address gender inequalities. In fact, gender integration tends to be most successful and sustainable when men are fully involved. GENDER MAINSTREAMING: UNDERSTANDING THE STRATEGY Gender mainstreaming was adopted as a strategy for promoting gender equality and empowerment of women at the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women. “…Governments and other actors should promote an active and visible policy of mainstreaming a gender perspective in all policies and programs so that, before decisions are taken, an analysis is made of effects on women and men, respectively.”10 According to the definition of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programs, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and 7 OECD/DAC, “DAC Guidelines for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Development Co￾operation,” 1999. 8 For more on definitions, see March, C., I. Smyth, and M. Mukhopadhyay, “A Guide to Gender Analysis Frameworks,” 1999. 9 OECD/DAC, 1999, Ibid. 10 “Fourth World Conference on Women: Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration.” 5 Chapter Two—Background: Definition and Conceptual Understanding of Gender men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.11 It is important to keep in mind that gender mainstreaming is only one strategy to achieve gender equity and is not intended to replace “women only” initiatives that may still be relevant to build women’s capacity to ensure equal participation and decision making. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE AFRICAN CONTEXT The women’s movement has been growing gradually from the time of the struggle for independence, though in those days it was just known as nationalism: gender was not an issue. But gradually the women’s movement started agitating for an improvement in the situation of women. By 1971-72, we began to make our voices heard and government responded. Mabel Mulimo of Zambia12 When discussing gender issues within the African context, one often comes across the notion that “WID/GAD is a development agenda set by women of the North and has little relevance to women in Africa.” Others argue that, by tracing the history of international development back to the post World War II era, there is evidence that, in fact, it was African women who laid the foundation for the concept of gender equality and empowerment of women. In the wake of independence in the late 1950s and early 1960s, African women started to voice their positions about their roles in shaping the development agendas of their newly independent countries. In Kenya, for example, women were organized under the leadership of Margaret Kenyatta (daughter of Kenyan first President after independence) and held two national seminars in 1962 and 1963 and an East Africa regional seminar in 196413. During this period, women in the region began organizing themselves into groups. In 1962, the All African Women’s Conference (later known as the Pan African Women’s Organization) held its first meeting in Tanganyika (now known as Tanzania). In response to the notion that the gender equality agenda was handed down to African women by Western women, one African activist who worked with Margaret Kenyatta responded. “It (the movement for gender equality) was here before 1968 [this was the year when Western feminism movement was launched].”14 During this period, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, commissioned studies on women’s roles in development and supported regional seminars. In the 1960s, eight regional seminars were held in Africa under the U.N. support. Resolutions adopted by women’s conferences in the region at that time noted a “failure to acknowledge and support women’s economic and social activities in their 11 U.N. Economic and Social Council, “Agreed Conclusions 1997/2 on Gender Mainstreaming,” February 1998. 12 Cited in Snyder, M., Transforming Development: Women, Poverty and Politics, 1995. 13 Snyder, M., Ibid. 14 Phoebe Asiyo—who worked with M. Kenyatta, cited in M. Snyder, Ibid., p. 11. 6 Development Alternatives, Inc. families, communities and nations had a negative effect on overall productivity and allowed opportunities for development to be missed.”15 Women in Southern Africa have taken active role in the struggle for independence. Even though their primary focus at first was to free their countries from colonial rule, they gradually realized that independence alone does not guarantee them equal rights to economic resources and decision making. Therefore, many women’s organizations mobilized forces to promote women’s issues within the frameworks of liberation movements. A good example is the women’s movements in South Africa, which recognized the double-edged nature of their struggle and persistently pursed the struggle against apartheid and the gender equality agenda within their political parties.16 15 Ibid. 16 Klugman, B., “Women in Politics Under Apartheid: A Challenge to the New South Africa,” in Women and Politics Worldwide, Nelson, B. and N. Chowdhury et al., 1994. 7 Chapter Three—Regional Profile: Southern Africa CHAPTER THREE REGIONAL PROFILE: SOUTHERN AFRICA Southern Africa encompasses 13 countries and has a population of 190 million. In terms of its economic and social development, the region can be characterized as diverse, including mid- to high-income countries such as Botswana and South Africa and poor- to low-income countries such as Malawi, Angola, and Mozambique. Despite the wealth of human, agricultural, and mineral resources in the region, its performance in both economic and social development has been declining. The region’s average of 3 percent economic growth lags behind the region’s population growth, which is estimated to be 3.5 percent. A recent policy study for employment and labor sector17 indicated that agriculture accounts for 70 percent of the labor force in the region whereas industry and services employ only 30 percent. It was noted that, even though the agricultural sector employs the majority of the working population, it contributes only 10 percent to the regional gross domestic product. The industry and services sector accounts for 90 percent of GDP. This discrepancy shows the difference in productivity between these sectors and the level of vulnerability people in the agricultural sector experience because of under- and unemployment in that sector. The region’s vulnerability to poverty has increased. With 76 million people (40 percent of total population) living in extreme poverty, the region is said to have the highest proportion of people living under $1 a day. Even in high-performing economies like Botswana, with a 5 percent annual growth rate, 47 percent of the population lives in extreme poverty. In Mozambique, with 6.2 percent GDP growth in 1999, 69 percent of the population lives on $1 a day. South Africa is not immune to the threats of poverty; almost half of its population (44 percent) lives under the poverty line. The region’s human development report reflects the severe impact of the deteriorating development trend on peoples’ living conditions.18 Social indicators in the region are mixed, reflecting gains in some areas but deterioration of conditions in others. According the SADC Regional Human Development Report 2000, the combined enrollment rate in education in primary, secondary, and tertiary levels has significantly increased in SADC countries—rising from 38 percent in 1980 to 51.8 percent in 1995. Similarly, the adult literacy rate has increased by 23 percent points, from 48 percent in 1970 to 71 percent in 1995 (although there was a drop to 67.32 percent in 1998). However, the gender gap in adult literacy is said to have remained wide. In 1998, the adult literacy rate for women was 57 percent but 72.6 percent for men. This chapter describes programs in education, adult literacy, health, and general well-being for countries in Southern Africa. The chapter also assesses progress and setbacks in promoting gender equality in primary education in the individual countries. 17 Cited in a SADC article “Poverty Reduction: A Top Priority in SADC’s Integration Agenda.” http://www.sadc.int/english/About/Poverty.htm. 18 “SADC Human Development Report, 2000.” 8 Development Alternatives, Inc. CLOSING THE GENDER GAP IN PRIMARY EDUCATION Although some countries in the region—for instance, Botswana and Mauritius—have close the gender gap in primary education, others—such as Lesotho and Namibia—have reached the level where there are more girls in school than boys. Table 1 compares gross and net enrollment in primary education between 1980 and 1999 by sex in SADC countries for which data are available. Between 1980 and 1999, there was a dramatic decline of gross enrollment in Angola (72 percent for girls and 53 percent for boys), Democratic Republic of Congo (79 percent points for girls and 89 percent points for boys), Mozambique (24 percent points for girls and 32 percent points for boys), and Tanzania (21 percent points for girls and 34 percent for boys). The gender gap in education has been persistent with low enrollment rate in Mozambique, Malawi, and Zambia, although enrollment of girls has increased in 1999. Table 1: Gross and Net School Enrollment Rates by Sex, 1980-1999 Gross Enrollment Rate % of Age Group—Primary Education Net Enrollment Rate % of Age Group—Primary Countries 1980 1999 1980 1999 Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Angola Botswana Congo DR Lesotho Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Seychelles South Africa Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe 175 100 135 122 49 91 84 — — — 86 83 110 152 83 148 85 72 94 115 — — — 99 98 120 83 105 56 106 — 108 60 127 — — 65 84 107 99 106 59 97 — 108 83 125 — — 65 89 110 74 82 93 79 38 79 34 — — — 65 73 — 82 69 99 55 48 80 39 — — — 68 81 — 53 82 — 64 — 93 37 90 — — 49 72 43 61 79 — 56 — 93 45 83 — — 47 74 48 Source: World Bank—Http://www.genderstat.worldbank.org. The table also illustrates the low rate of net enrollment in all countries except in Mauritius and Namibia. Even in Lesotho, where there were high gross enrollment rates—106 percent for girls and 97 percent for boys in primary education in 1999—the net enrollment rate for both decreased to the low levels of 64 percent and 56 percent, respectively. Zimbabwe is probably the worst-case scenario of this deteriorating trend. Although many factors contribute to these declines, this period coincides with the implementation of structural adjustment policies that impacted negatively on the social sector investments, including schools and health. User fees were instituted, and public sector employees lost their jobs. This impacted on families’ abilities to enroll and keep their children in school. This is particularly problematic for girls. More of them are pulled out of school because their families need them to help out at home and earn income to support their families. 9 Chapter Three—Regional Profile: Southern Africa HEALTH The decline of infant mortality in the SADC region is one major achievement in the last decades.19 The average infant mortality fell from 113 in 1970 to 54 in 1998. This was said to be the result of the improved health profile of the population and women’s education. The highest maternal mortality rate is in Mozambique with 1,100 deaths per 100,000 live births, while the rate is lowest in Mauritius. High rates of mortality persist in Zambia and Malawi. A serious health problem is increased violence against women, including rape. This affects their physical, social and emotional well-being. The prevalence of and increased incidence of violence against women also stem from increased economic hardship and increased unemployment of men. Although some countries have adopted legislation to combat violence against women, the implementation and enforcement of these laws seem to be not effective. One of the most serious health and economic challenges of Southern Africa today is the increasing prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Table 2 shows the rate of infection in SADC countries by the end of 1997. The figures for the rate of infection are much higher now—for example, a recent study shows 36 percent of infection rate for Botswana. In the region, women account for 55 percent of infected population. Table 2: Indicators of Well-being—Health and Adult Literacy Adult Literacy 1998 (%) Adults 15-49 Years Living with HIV/AIDS Countries in 2000 Female Male Total % of Female % of Births Attended by Trained Health Personnel, 1990-1996 Maternal Mortality Rate (deaths per 100,000 live births), 1990-98 Angola Botswana Congo. DR. Lesotho Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Seychelles South Africa Swaziland Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe — 78.2 47.1 92.9 44.1 80.3 27.0 79.7 — 83.9 — 64.3 69.1 82.9 — 72.8 71.3 71.0 73.2 87.3 58.4 81.9 — 85.4 — 83.3 84.0 91.7 150,000 280,000 1,100,000 240,000 760,000 —- 1,100,000 150,000 —- 4,100,000 120,000 1,200,000 830,000 1,400,000 54.7 53.6 54.5 54.2 55.3 — 56.7 —— 56.1 55.8 58.3 54.2 57.1 15 78 — 40 55 97 25 68 99 82 53 51 69 — 330 — — 620 50 1100 230 — 160 530 650 400 Sources: SADC Regional Human Development Report 2000 SADC Gender Monitor, March 2001, Issue 2 This is an epidemic that has obvious and serious gender implications. For example, women often lack complete control over their lives and are taught from early childhood to be obedient and submissive to males. Dominance of male interests and lack of self-assertiveness 19 “SADC Human Development Report, 2000.” 10 Development Alternatives, Inc. on the part of women contribute to their vulnerability. Women are also biologically more prone to infection than men. Research indicates women are two to four times more vulnerable to HIV infection during unprotected intercourse; women also are more vulnerable to other sexually transmitted diseases, the presence of which greatly enhances the risk of HIV infection.20 In sub-Saharan Africa overall, 55 percent of those living with HIV/AIDS are women.21 ƒ Women under 25 represent the fastest-growing group with AIDS in Africa, accounting for nearly 30 percent of all female AIDS cases.22 The highest infection levels for women are in the 20-24 age group, while for men the highest infection levels are found in the 30- 39 age group. Prevalence for females is markedly higher than for males among those aged 15-24, while male prevalence is higher in those aged 25-39.23 ƒ Studies in Tanzania, for instance, show that the increased responsibility of women in caring for the sick as the result of the epidemic reduced their ability to engage in productive labor.24 ƒ Because of the subordinate position of women in society, they are unable to negotiate protective measures with their husbands and partners. ƒ The poverty levels of women are often the reasons they engage in commercial sex in Southern Africa. ƒ Studies conducted in Malawi, South Africa, and Zimbabwe indicate the need to improve intergenerational dialogue on the epidemic, link traditional women’s associations with the formal health care systems, engage men in dialogue to take responsibility about their behavior, and link intervention initiatives with activities targeted to improve the status of women.25 ƒ It is noteworthy that the Sexual Offense Act recently enacted in Zimbabwe, as a result of strategic alliances between women’s NGOs and women parliamentarians across party lines, considers HIV/AIDS as a gender and sexual rights issue. The act punishes spouses and others who willfully transmit HVI/AIDS to each other or someone else. In the case of a marital relationship, the act challenges the notion that spouses must succumb to the conjugal rights of the other even where there is imminent danger to one’s health.26 20 “HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa,” POLICY Project, August 2000, p. 29. 21 Ibid., p. 75. 22 Whitehead, A. and N. Kabeer, “From Uncertainty to Risk: Poverty, Growth and Gender in the Rural African Context,” IDS Working Paper, 2001. 23 HIV/AIDS, op. cit., p. 10. 24 Ainsworth, M. and A.M. Over, 1994, “AIDS and African Development,” World Bank Research Observer, 9: 203-40, in Whitehead and Kabeer, 2001, op. cit. 25 International Center for Research on Women, “Women and AIDS Research Program.” http://www.icrw.org. publications 26 The GAD Exchange, Issue No. 26, November 2001, pp. 2-3 (online version). 11 Chapter Three—Regional Profile: Southern Africa GENDER AND POVERTY IN AFRICA Anecdotal evidence suggests that 70 percent of the world’s poor are women.27 Women’s poverty level has worsened over the years in sub-Saharan Africa, where economic decline has been a trend for decades. In Africa, women have little access to productive resources, including land, labor, technology and capital. Although women in Eastern and Southern Africa represent 60-80 percent of the labor force in agriculture and are responsible for 70-80 percent of food production, the access to agricultural land by women is limited and dependent on their relationship with men. In many of the Southern African countries, customary laws prohibit women from having access to land, further perpetuating gender inequalities in property rights. In sub-Saharan Africa, women receive less than 10 percent of the credit to small farmers and 1 percent of the total credit to agriculture.28There is a disproportionately high representation of women in the informal economy in Africa. In fact, in the last 15 years, the informal sector has been the fastest-growing source of employment for African women.29 More than 30 percent of the African households are led by women, although the rate for Southern Africa is said to be higher (about 60 percent). Even though evidence in other parts of Africa suggests there is no or only a weak link between female headship and household poverty, a recent study in Southern Africa found that the incidence of poverty was higher among female-headed households in the region.30 Poor conditions in rural areas increase women’s workload in both subsistence employment and the household. Because of time constraints, women in Africa are unable to take full advantage of employment opportunities presented by trade expansion and globalization. The gender-based inequalities in Southern Africa are very similar to the rest of sub-Saharan Africa, although the level in some areas may be different. The following section focuses on gender inequalities in employment and income in Southern Africa. THE GENDER NATURE OF EMPLOYMENT AND INCOME IN SOUTHERN AFRICA The absence of statistical data on women’s work in the productive arenas, including the subsistence economy and the informal sector and as unpaid family labor and in the household, makes it difficult to have a full understanding of the scope of women’s labor contribution to national economies. A World Bank report noted that 66 percent of women’s work in developing countries remains uncounted, whereas only 24 percent of men’s work is not included in the System of National Accounts. Analysis of the formal employment of women does not give the full picture of their economic activities. In Southern Africa, there seems to be a declining trend in women’s formal employment as a percentage of the total labor force. As Table 3 shows, between 1970 and 1998 women’s share 27 The United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM). 28 World Bank. 29 UNECA paper “Evaluation Report on Women and Poverty, November 1999. 30 Lampietti, 1998, cited in UNECA paper, Ibid. 12 Development Alternatives, Inc. of adult labor force increased only by 1 percent for the region and decreased in 6 of the SADC countries. Three of the Southern African countries (Namibia, South Africa, and Zambia) recorded only marginal increases in women’s share of the labor force. Mauritius is the only country with increased women’s share of the adult labor force (more than 10 percent for that period). These data suggest that, despite increases in poverty rates, women are entering the formal economic sector in low numbers. Most women continue to earn their livelihoods in subsistence agriculture, informal trade, seasonal or part-time work, and self￾employment. One disadvantage of this trend for women is that informal employment offers low payment and lacks the social protection offered by formal employment. Table 3: Labor Force Structure by Sector and Sex in Southern Africa Women’s Share of Adult Labor Force (% age 15 years and above) Labor Force 1990 Agriculture Industry Services Country 1970 1998 Total In Millions Women % of Total % of Women % of Men % of Women % of Men % of Women % of Men Angola Botswana Congo. DR. Lesotho Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Seychelles South Africa Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe 47 55 45 40 50 20 50 39 — 33 51 44 44 46.34 45.54 43.48 36.82 48.80 32.16 48.40 40.82 — 37.64 49.22 45.04 44.46 4 1 16 1 4 - 7 1 — 14 13 03 05 47 47 44 37 50 30 48 40 — 37 50 46 44 85 2 58 59 96 18 96 67 — 10 91 83 35 65 4 81 29 78 12 70 46 — 16 78 68 22 2 16 05 05 01 66 01 12 — 15 2 03 08 14 39 14 41 09 33 15 21 — 42 8 13 32 13 82 14 36 03 23 03 21 — 76 07 14 57 21 57 23 30 13 46 15 33 — 42 14 19 46 Sources: World Bank, Genderstat, http://www.genderstat.worldbank.org; SADC Regional Human Development Report 2000 and African Development Indicators CD 2000, cited in the SADC Human Development, 2000. The gender division of labor by sector confirms this condition. In Southern Africa, with the exception of Botswana, Mauritius, and South Africa, women are more concentrated in agriculture than in any other sector. With 91, 96, and 96 percent of female labor force concentration in agriculture, women’s concentration in this sector is strongest in Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique, respectively. In countries where there is less concentration of the female labor force in agriculture, the employment rate is high for women in the service industry—for example, in Botswana and South Africa (82 and 76 percent of the female labor force, respectively). The question is, If women are participating in the labor force, why are they poor? To answer this question, one needs to examine factors that differentially affect women’s and men’s employment and income-earning capacities. Women in Southern Africa are highly 13 Chapter Three—Regional Profile: Southern Africa concentrated in the agricultural sector, which is characterized by low productivity, low wage rates, little job security, and almost no benefits. The majority of men, in contrast, are employed either in industries or in commercial farming, where the return for labor is relatively high. Table 4 illustrates real GDP or purchasing power parity (PPP) in U.S. dollars for women and men in countries of the SADC region, further showing the gender differentials in income levels. Table 4: Real Gross Domestic Product per Capita by Sex, 1998 Real GDP Per Capita (PPP$) Country Female Male Angola Botswana Congo DR Lesotho Malawi Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Seychelles South Africa Swaziland Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe SADC 1 403 3 747 590 982 432 4 375 647 3 513 — 5 205 2 267 400 540 1 990 1 730 2 249 8 550 1 060 2 291 616 12 375 921 6 852 — 11 886 5 485 561 903 3 359 3 625 Source: SADC Regional Human Development Report 2000. Women also spend a considerable amount of their time caring for children and adult family members (old and sick), whereas men do not. Women often take employment that can be combined with their family responsibilities. Much of women’s time is also spent collecting firewood, fetching water, cleaning, cooking, working on family farms, and carrying food crops and other products to markets. These labor demands clearly affect women’s opportunities to earn income (and to take part in social and political forums). Much more needs to be done to change the poor economic performance in the region and to eliminate the persistent gender (and other) inequalities that hamper the economic, social, and political developments. There is a strong historical commitment to regional approaches, and African scholars and policy makers have long been convinced that “regionalism,” understood as collective self-reliance, is the most appropriate strategy to achieve autonomous, self￾reliant, and self-sustained development.31 Regional development can enhance economic development and prepare the region for global competition. The following section summarizes the market integration experience of SADC and the efforts made to close the gender gap in economic, social, and political spheres. 31 Seidman, A. and F. Anang et al., 21st Century Africa: Towards a New Vision of Self-Sustainable Development, 1992. 14 Development Alternatives, Inc. REGIONAL INTEGRATION: SOUTHERN AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT COMMUNITY SADC was formally established in 1992 and replaced the Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), an informal organization established by the “frontline” countries to reduce the economic dependence on the South African apartheid system. The Windhoek treaty in 1992 signed by heads of states of member countries transformed SADC into a formal organization and reflected a new commitment to increased integration by member states. SADC objectives as stated in the treaty are to: ƒ Achieve development and economic growth, alleviate poverty, enhance the standard and quality of life of the peoples of Southern Africa, and support the socially disadvantaged through regional integration; ƒ Evolve common political values, systems, and institutions; ƒ Promote and defend peace and security; ƒ Promote self-sustaining development on the basis of collective self-reliance, and the inter-dependence of member states; ƒ Achieve complementarity between national and regional strategies and programs; ƒ Promote and maximize productive employment and utilization of resources of the region; ƒ Achieve the sustainable utilization of natural resources and effective protection of the environment; and ƒ Strengthen and consolidate the long-standing historical, social, and cultural affinities and links among the peoples of the region. SADC has a Secretariat, which is responsible for strategic planning and management of SADC programs, implements decisions made by the Summit of Heads of State and Government and the Council of Ministers, and organizes and manages SADC meetings. SADC’s institutional structure includes sector coordinating units, which are responsible for formulating sectoral policies, strategies, and programs. As part of a contribution to SADC, each member state is allocated a sector to coordinate. The sector coordinating units also monitor progress and report to the Council of Ministers. 15 Chapter Three—Regional Profile: Southern Africa GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT WITHIN SADC Observers familiar with the region note that, as compared with the early 1990s, today SADC has scored some achievements in putting gender-sensitive policies and institutional frameworks in place. This came in part as the result of women’s mobilization and organization for equality and justice. Many women in the region were active in the struggle for independence along side their male counterparts. Women who were actively engaged in the fight against colonialism shifted their focus to win the struggle against the inequality of women in society. The Third United Nations World Conference on Women held in Nairobi in 1985 provided them with the much-needed forum to forge alliances regionally as well as globally. The networking among women in the region expanded, and women became committed to push for the implementation of the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategy at regional and national levels. They demanded the integration of WID issues into the programs and projects of Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC), now known as SADC. In 1987, SADCC agreed to take account of women’s issues into its programming and started to implement gender-related projects on an ad-hoc basis. In preparation for the 1995 United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, several seminars were held throughout the region. Women used these forums to continue to pressure SADC to rethink its development agenda from a gender perspective. A major victory came in 1997, when SADC’s Declaration on Gender and Development was signed by member heads of state. The declaration outlined the following institutional framework for promoting gender equality and empowerment of women in the region. ƒ Achieve at least 30 percent representation of women in political and decision-making structure by 2005; ƒ Promote women’s full access to and control over productive resources to reduce the level of poverty among women; ƒ Repeal and reform all laws, amend the constitutions, and change social practices that subject women to discrimination; ƒ Take urgent measures to prevent and deal with the increasing levels of violence against women and children; ƒ Issue an addendum on violence against women; ƒ Organize a committee of ministers responsible for Gender/Women’s Affairs; ƒ Constitute an advisory committee consisting of government and NGO representatives from each SADC member state; ƒ Establish a Gender Unit at the SADC Secretariat; and ƒ Put gender focal points in the sector coordinating units. 16 Development Alternatives, Inc. PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES The SADC Regional Human Development Report 2000 considers SADC as one region in the world that has committed itself to achieving gender equality. According to this report, the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) Index,32 between 1995 and 1997, improved in six countries—South Africa, Mauritius, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Zambia, and Malawi. It was also noted that women’s real GDP per capita significantly increased in the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa. Women’s representation in Parliament during the 1999 and 2000 elections in five SADC countries significantly increased (in Botswana 100 percent, Malawi 59 percent, South Africa, 7 percent, and Namibia 5 percent), while Mozambique held even at 28.4 percent. This progress, however, has not been matched by improvement in the Gender Development Index (GDI)33 for the region, which declined by 0.87 between 1995 and 1998. A fall in all components was recorded during this period, except in income for women. Moreover, except for South Africa and Swaziland, the Gender Development Index fell in all individual SADC countries for which sufficient data were available. Despite the achievements in some areas, other gender inequalities remain. Laws in member countries deny women equal rights in access to and control over productive assets, inheritance, and family. In countries where laws have been amended—for example, Tanzania’s new law on land tenure; amendments to criminal laws in Botswana and Mauritius to increase penalties for sexual offense; and revision of criminal codes to protect women from all forms of domestic violence including marital rape in the Mauritius and Seychelles (Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia are working on such legislation)—the challenge will be to effectively implement and enforce the laws. The fact that the region achieved better results in women’s political participation than in improving women’s access to economic assets and increased employment is not a coincidence. Much of the energy and resources of women’s organizations in the last decade have been used to advocate for gender equality in representation and decision making. Also, since its establishment, the SADC Gender Unit has focused primarily on reaching SADC’s goal of 30 percent of the representatives in parliaments in member countries are women. The unit has recently started to look at SADC’s portfolio for economic growth and trade expansion from a gender perspective. Similarly, organizations working on gender issues have started to expand their strategy to include more issues that are relevant to women. SADC’s policies and structural framework provide a fertile ground for the efforts of RCSA to build on and be engaged in integrating gender considerations into its program portfolios. The next 32 GEM is a composite index using variables constructed to measure the relative empowerment of women and men in political and economic spheres of activity. Three indices—for economic participation and decision making, for political participation and decision making, and for power over economic resources—are added to derive the final GEM value. 33 GDI is a composite index using the same variable as the Human Development Index. The difference is that the GDI adjusts the average achievement of each country in life expectancy, educational attainment, and income in accordance with the disparity in achievement between women and men. For details, see the technical notes of the “SADC Human Development Report 2000.”. 17 Chapter Three—Regional Profile: Southern Africa chapter assesses RCSA’s programs from a gender perspective and outlines possible entry points within each Strategic Objective to more systematically integrate gender considerations and achieve results. 19 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa CHAPTER FOUR GENDER ASSESSMENT OF USAID’S REGIONAL CENTER FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA USAID/RCSA’s strategy’s goal is “to promote equitable, sustainable economic growth in a democratic Southern Africa.” To achieve this, the strategy for 1997-2003 developed three Strategic Objectives, which were modified into four: ƒ SO1: Increased Regional Capacity to Influence Democratic Performance; ƒ SO2: A More Integrated Regional Market; ƒ SO12: Increased Regional Cooperation in the Management of Shared Natural Resources; and ƒ SO13: Expanded Commercial Markets for Agricultural Technologies and Commodities in the SADC region. RCSA’s Strategic Plan of 1997-2003 made little reference as to how gender issues would be taken into account in programming, monitoring, and evaluation. The Mission’s Performance Monitoring Plan of 1999, however, illustrated mechanisms and ways in which RCSA planned to enhance program results through the application of gender equity concepts and methodologies. In that document, RCSA stated its commitment to gender integration in the program approach and recognized that all development initiatives impact men and women in different ways. To more fully integrate gender considerations in its programs, RCSA named a Gender Coordinating Officer. The Mission also acknowledged that gender integration would not be easy, given the regional focus of the Mission and the reality that gender issues are driven by local norms and circumstances and that gender strategies must respond in-kind. The Performance Monitoring Plan shows that the RCSA’s commitment to gender integration is concentrated in the performance monitoring aspect of its work and outlines three gender themes (equity, inclusion, and representation and women’s participation and traditional practices) under which data collection initiatives would be carried out by the IMPACT project. The following points summarize the opinions expressed by staff during interviews on issues of gender integration. ƒ Staff recognized the need to enhance attention to gender into program portfolio. Mission leadership expressed strong commitment to ensure gender consideration be taken into account in the new strategy. ƒ The difficulty of integrating gender into program portfolios at the regional level was strongly expressed by staff. Since much of RCSA’s work deals with regional policy 20 Development Alternatives, Inc. formulation and with legal and regulatory frameworks, there was a belief that there may be little or no entry points for gender integration. ƒ Only a few staff stressed the need to examine the gender dimension of policy reforms that RCSA promotes at the regional level and to assess their implications on men and women. The WIDTECH team acknowledges the complex conditions in which RCSA operates and the pursuit of gender integration within this environment is indeed challenging. With that in mind, the following section provides a gender analysis of issues within each Strategic Objective, identifies key areas in which gender can systematically be integrated into programs, and provides recommendations that can enhance results. SO1: INCREASED REGIONAL CAPACITY TO INFLUENCE DEMOCRATIC PERFORMANCE This Strategic Objective provides support to key regional organizations that foster and advocate democratic “best practices” in Southern Africa. All SO1 activities contribute to three Intermediate Results: ƒ IR 1.1—Increased information sharing within the region; ƒ IR 1.2 —Increased advocacy and other cooperation bringing regional experience to bear at national level; and ƒ IR 1.3—Regional norms further defined by Southern Africans. The Intermediate Results are sequentially interrelated, with increased information sharing leading to increased advocacy based on shared regional experience, which would lead to the development of regional democratic norms in the three core program areas: ƒ Elections and election processes; ƒ Media pluralism, diversity, and freedom; and ƒ Anti-corruption initiatives. Program activities currently emphasize the development of regional norms under IR 1.3, as a result of both the sequential program focus and the unanticipated cutbacks in funding and activities that necessitated a focus on fewer but larger activities. Further, activities focused primarily on information sharing and advocacy have been completed. Thus, performance indicators focus only on IR 1.3 for each core program area, in addition to the Strategic Objective level indicators. 21 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa Gender Issues in Democracy and Governance in Southern Africa This overview of issues comprises participation in political and decision-making structures, legal status, women and the media, and conditions affecting civic and political participation. Participation in Political and Decision-Making Structures SADC Heads of State and Government approved and signed a Declaration on Gender and Development in 1997. The declaration commits SADC member states to achieve a target of at least 30 percent of participants in political and decision-making structures are women by 2005.34 This is reflected in gains made by women in parliament and ministries in 1999 and 2000 elections in five countries (Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, and Tanzania); however, the number of women member of Parliament and ministers dropped in two others (Mauritius and Zimbabwe).35 The SADC member states with the highest percentage of women in parliament (2000 figures) are South Africa, 29.8 percent; Mozambique, 28.4 percent; and Seychelles, 24 percent. Mauritius has the lowest percentage, 5.9 percent. The average for the SADC region is 17 percent, higher than the averages for sub-Saharan Africa (9 percent) and the Americas and Europe (15 percent). Figures for women in cabinets range from a high of 29.6 percent in South Africa, 21.4 percent in the Seychelles, and 20 percent in Botswana to 5 percent in Zimbabwe and 4 percent in Mauritius. The average for the region is 13.4 percent. The percentage of women deputy ministers ranges widely, from 61.5 percent in South Africa and 50 percent in Botswana to 7.1 percent in Zambia and 10 percent in Lesotho, for a regional average of 21.9 percent for the 10 countries with data.36 With respect to public service, for 11 countries for which figures are available, 13.7 percent of permanent secretaries or directors general are women. Figures for women in local government range from 52 percent in the Seychelles and 41 percent in Namibia to 6.3 percent in Zambia and 3.1 percent in Zimbabwe.37 Although these figures compare favorably with those for the rest of Africa and much of the rest of the world, they reflect an under-representation of women in decision-making structures. Moreover, there are stark differences among countries. Legal Status and Issues Women in the region remain disadvantaged economically and socially, generally as a result their subordinate legal status. Discriminatory laws still exist, especially in the field of family 34 Molokomme, A., “Gender and Human Development,” African Political and Economic Monthly, Vol. 14, No. 5, 2001, p. 39. 35 Ibid., p. 41. 36 “SADC Regional Human Development Report 2000,” p. 80. 37 Molokomme, A., op. cit., p. 38. 22 Development Alternatives, Inc. law. Married women do not have the same rights as their husbands over family property and decision making. Sons and daughters do not have the same property and inheritance rights. Dual legal systems (statutory and customary) remain in effect in all SADC countries. Unequal marriage, inheritance and property laws based in customary law deny women their full legal capacity, in spite of guarantees of gender equality in country constitutions. At worst, constitutional provisions exempt customary law from the definition of discrimination; at best, they are unclear about customary law, which leaves the precise rights of women uncertain and precarious. Court decisions reflect these ambiguities, often reflecting cultural biases and customs that discriminate against women. Even where laws are amended to provide for equality of rights between women and men, their impact is reduced by women’s ignorance of the law and the absence of effective enforcement mechanisms.38 Nonetheless, efforts are continuing to reform discriminatory laws. Tanzania has enacted a land law that gives land ownership rights to women. Amendments to criminal laws have increased penalties for sexual offenses in Botswana and Mauritius. The Seychelles has revised the penal code to cover marital rape and to protect women from all forms of violence. Mauritius, the Seychelles, and South Africa have domestic violence legislation, and Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia are working on such legislation.39 Women and the Media Female employment in media ranges from a high of 46 percent in Botswana, closely followed by Lesotho with 42 percent, to a low of 12 percent in Malawi. The average for the nine countries is 27 percent. Women are poorly represented at decision-making levels. Very few hold positions with power to influence news content. This contributes to an unbalanced picture of the activities of women and their contribution to national development in the media.40 Media reporting and advertising mirror societal attitudes toward women, reflecting a patriarchal perspective. Traditional male/female roles are deeply instilled in the mass media, to such an extent that even women have become desensitized to their own inferior portrayal. Further, the portrayal of women in the media is linked to “newsworthiness.” Sensationalism takes precedence over the careful collection and analysis of data, and this becomes the context for reporting on issues such as violence against women.41 Conditions Affecting Civic and Political Participation Literacy and educational levels, for both women and men, are generally higher in the SADC region than in other parts of Africa, a factor that favors civic and political participation. The 38 Ibid, p. 38. 39 SADC, op. cit., p. 81. 40 “Women in the SADC Region: the Facts,” Progress Report (First Quarter), Engendering SADC Parliaments, SADC, December 2000, no page numbers. 41 Ibid. 23 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa more-developed countries in the region show female adult literacy of 92-98 percent of male levels, and Botswana and Lesotho have higher levels of female than male literacy, 107 percent and 131 percent, respectively. The lowest levels of female (compared with male) adult literacy in the region are in Malawi (60 percent) and Mozambique (46 percent). The pattern for female secondary enrollment, as a percentage of the male enrollment ratio, is similar, with a higher percentage of females than males enrolled in Mauritius, South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, and Lesotho. The levels for Zimbabwe and Swaziland are 91 percent and 93 percent, respectively. Malawi has the lowest comparative level for females, 59 percent of the male ratio, with Mozambique at 62 percent, Zambia at 71 percent, and Angola at 82 percent.42 There appears to be growing interest and participation by women in both civil society and politics in the region. In war-torn Angola, for example, women were participating more in 2000 than in 1997. According to a woman leader interviewed, “Women are feeling a greater need to organize themselves. Three years ago, there was a need to push them forward; now, women are coming forward themselves. They are aware that only [when they are] organized can they contribute.” The reasons cited for this increased interest and activity include the higher levels of responsibility because many are heads of households and realize the need to influence decisions that reflect their survival. A key issue for women is poverty, the resolution of which requires effective governance. Another reason is the governments’ failure to provide services without incentives or pressure. Finally, women have begun to experience the power that comes with greater access to information, organization, and advocacy.43 Summary of Gender Equality Activities and Results under SO1 SO1 has made significant progress in integrating attention to gender in elections and political processes. The following summarizes activities and results to date for each core activity. All three core activity areas now focus on the achievement of IR 1.3. Elections and Political Processes ƒ Initial regional democracy-strengthening activities began in 1996 through a small grants program, Southern Africa Regional Democracy Fund (SARDF). It was designed to build the capacities of regional institutions to share regional experience and to undertake advocacy and the creation of regional norms. This program made 35 grants between 1996 and its completion in 2000. The first grant, in 1996, went to Women in Law and Development in Africa (WiLDAF), a regional women’s NGO, for a three-year pilot, Women in Politics Project (WIPP), carried out in four countries: Mozambique, Malawi, Namibia and Swaziland. The main activities of WIPP were to conduct surveys on women in politics, including a gender political analysis and a needs assessment. In workshops, the results were used to develop strategies for increasing women’s participation in 42 UNDP, “Human Development Report 2000,” pp. 256-258. 43 Greenberg, M., “Women in Angola,” WIDTECH, April 2000, p. 3. 24 Development Alternatives, Inc. politics. The workshops enabled women’s rights NGOs to learn how to present women’s participation in decision making as a human rights issue, and enabled women in politics and women’s rights activists to come together to strategize for closer cooperation in promoting participation by women in decision making.44 ƒ Engendering SADC Parliaments is a two-year activity (2000-2002) implemented by the SADC Parliamentary Forum in collaboration with the Southern African Research and Documentation Centre (SARDC). The activity seeks to facilitate good governance through promoting gender equality by building capacity of members of Parliament to advocate for increased representation and participation by women in politics and decision making and by facilitating improved networking between Parliamentarians and civil society groups on gender issues, thus empowering members of Parliament to enact gender-sensitive legislation and to accelerate achievement of the objectives of the SADC Declaration on Gender and Development. Activities include the establishment of a gender advisory team and a regional gender caucus within the SADC Parliamentary Forum and the strengthening of women’s caucuses in national parliaments; the development and adoption of a gender action plan for the implementation of the SADC Gender Declaration; roundtables and workshops on the SADC Gender Declaration; training members of Parliament in advocacy and lobbying skills and gender-sensitive election monitoring; development of a regional gender database and a gender resource center; and production and dissemination of materials.45 ƒ Support for elections’ observation, training, and development of electoral standards for the SADC Parliamentary Forum (2000-2002) also included attention to gender. Training for election observers focused on the political actors involved in elections, including a workshop on gender. Examples of the types of programs and processes used in the region to increase women’s representation in political life through election activities were discussed. Mobilizing women, working with political parties and government, and raising awareness through voter education and monitoring were explored.46 Attention to gender is also included in the handbook developed for election observers47 and in the development of electoral standards for the region by the SADC Parliamentary Forum, with reference to the SADC 30 percent target for women’s participation. Gender is an explicit element in the SADC Parliamentary Forum’s election observation checklist, and one quarter of its election observation delegates have been women.48 ƒ Survey data collected for the Southern Africa Democracy Barometer represent the opinions of both women and men, since interviews are alternated by gender to ensure equal representation; however, gender analysis is not used.49 44 WiLDAF, “Women in Politics Project (WIPP) Final Report,” 1999, pp. 2-3, 8. 45 “Progress Report (First Quarter),” Engendering SADC Parliaments, SARDC, December 2000, no page numbers. 46 “National Democratic Institute Quarterly Report,” SADC Parliamentary Forum Preparatory Election Observation Programme, July 1 to September 30, 2000, p. 5. 47 Ibid, p. 7. 48 RCSA, FY 2003 R4, March 2001, p. 6. 49 Mattes, R. et al., “Public Opinion and the Consolidation of Democracy in Southern Africa: An Initial Review of Key Findings of the Southern African Democracy Barometer,” July 2000, Appendix, p. v. 25 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa Media Pluralism, Diversity, and Freedom ƒ Support was provided through SARDF grants to the Southern African Broadcasters’ Association for training women broadcast journalists and expanding coverage of gender issues; and to an Angolan NGO to train women journalists in Angola and Mozambique. ƒ The Women in Politics Project, implemented by WiLDAF under a SARDF grant, collaborated with Sister Namibia, a cooperative of female journalists in Namibia whose aim is to advocate for women’s rights through effective use of print media. The Namibian Women’s Manifesto developed by Sister Namibia urged citizens to vote for female candidates in the 1999 elections. ƒ Support for the Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) has not included attention to gender, but MISA is reported to have a gender program. Anti-Corruption ƒ Gender has not been a focus of the RCSA-supported activity to date, but gender equality is stated as an institutional value of the principal implementing partner, Human Rights Trust of Southern Africa (SAHRIT). Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO1 These recommendations are meant to apply both to the current strategy and, especially, to the new strategy RCSA will begin developing later this year. Elections and Political Processes ƒ Assess the results achieved to date by the Engendering SADC Parliaments activity and the sustainability of the mechanisms supported (Gender Advisory Team, Regional Gender Caucus, regional gender database, and resource center). If necessary, provide additional support (and/or mobilize support from other donors) to ensure the sustainability of these initiatives within the SADC Parliamentary Forum. Sustaining the capacity and mechanisms developed will be important in achieving and maintaining greater political participation by women and in addressing gender-based legal status and reform issues, and gender issues related to HIV/AIDS throughout the region. ƒ Support the identification and dissemination, through the SADC Parliamentary Forum, of regional best practices for increasing participation by women in politics and in elections. The focus should on the quality of participation at all levels of decision making as well as absolute and percentage increases, including degree of knowledge, interest, and involvement in politics. 26 Development Alternatives, Inc. ƒ Support training for women leaders to increase women’s electoral participation and representation. For example, female candidates could learn how to conduct effective electoral campaigns. In addition to practical training in managing and financing campaigns, such training could also address gender issues and ways to promote gender equity in political campaigns. ƒ Support gender analysis of data from the first round of surveys of the Southern Africa Democracy Barometer and dissemination of results. Ensure that future surveys analyze and disseminate information by sex and other relevant control variables across the various dimensions in the surveys to identify gender differences in knowledge, attitudes, and participation and to facilitate actions to address such issues. Media Pluralism, Diversity, and Freedom ƒ Support strengthening MISA and its national chapters to incorporate a gender focus in outreach and advocacy training. For example, MISA could identify and address gender bias in the media, thereby broadening the constituency supporting media freedom by appealing to women’s concerns. Actions in support of increased participation by women in media decision making (through means such as gender-sensitive training for MISA chapters and media decision makers, as well as training women journalists) would also contribute to greater diversity in media coverage and constituencies and to greater likelihood that gender issues would be more effectively addressed in the media to the benefit of both society and the media themselves. Anti-Corruption ƒ Support advocacy for ratification and implementation of the SADC Anti-Corruption Protocol. This should include specific attention to the negative impact on women of corruption, which distorts an already uneven playing field for women. Since women rarely have the resources and power to access and influence corrupt institutions and systems and because they lack power and resources to a greater degree than men, women are less able to protect themselves from corruption and its effects. Efforts by anti￾corruption organizations to reach out to women’s organizations should be encouraged and supported—for example, through information dissemination and capacity development. ƒ Roundtables for lawmakers to advance ratification of the Anti-Corruption Protocol should specifically address the gender implications of corruption and involve regional gender caucus lawmakers. 27 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO1 The following suggestions regarding indicators and narrative performance reporting are likely to apply to only a limited extent to the current strategy but should be taken into account in developing performance monitoring and reporting for the new strategy. SO1 Indicators Two Strategic Objective indicators are based on indices to measure the strength and effectiveness of regional democracy and governance partner organizations. ƒ Indicator 1—Increased capacity of organizations seeking to achieve regional democracy and governance impacts—is measured by the percentage of organizations classified as strong, according to six dimensions,50 which do not include gender. It is recommended that it should include a dimension to measure capacity to address gender issues, such as percentage of staff members trained in gender analysis. ƒ Indicator 2—Increased effectiveness of organizations seeking to achieve regional democracy and governance impacts—is measured by a combined score, assessed on 10 dimensions, and expressed as a 3-point scale of effectiveness, 1 to 3 (least to most effective). One dimension assessed is attention to gender.51 To achieve a relatively high level of confidence, indicators based on indexes should clearly specify how the dimensions included in the index are assessed and measured and the relative weight of each factor or dimension in the index, if they are not equally weighted. Available descriptions of the current indicators do not make this sufficiently clear. Dimensions related to gender should be weighted at least equally to others. IR 1.3 Indicator The current indicator for IR 1.3, “regional norms further defined by Southern Africans,” measures progress made in the implementation of agreements that embody regional norms for the three core activity areas (media, elections, and anti-corruption). It may be useful to consider adding an indicator, or an additional dimension to the current indicator, to measure attention to gender in activities and agreements/norms—for example, activities or agreements/regional norms that effectively integrate attention to gender. A definition of the effective integration of gender might include definitions that permit the measurable assessment of progress and that include means for monitoring compliance. Such activities 50 The dimensions are (1) organizational structure and programmatic coherence; (2) management systems and leadership; (3) organizational culture and style; (4) administrative and financial capacity; (5) advocacy capacity; and (6) strategic location. 51 Dimensions include (1) advocacy; (2) analytical ability; (3) attention to gender issues; (4) appropriateness of institutional framework; (5) collaboration; (6) influence on debate; (7) influence on policy; (8) information dissemination; (9) lobbying of key decision-making institutions; and (10) use of regional experiences in their work. 28 Development Alternatives, Inc. and agreements should be listed for each core activity area, ideally in such a manner that gender-sensitive agreements can be distinguished from agreements that do not include attention to gender. Narrative Performance Reporting It would be useful to highlight in the narrative of the annual performance report, perhaps in the introductory summary of the Strategic Objective, how efforts to address gender issues in all three core activity areas reinforce one another and contribute to achievement of the Strategic Objective. This would provide a more coherent and strategic context for gender￾related activities, which currently are not linked and tend to appear as isolated rather than as an integral part of the strategic approach. All that is needed is a sentence or two, stating briefly that increasing the capacity to address gender is a fundamental element in increasing regional capacities to influence democratic performance and that attention to gender in all three activity areas contributes to removing gender barriers and creating conditions for greater participation by women as well as men. Individual activities and results for each area should then be reported, insofar as possible, with reference to how they further results for that activity area and overall results. Recommendations for Strengthening SO1 Cross-Sectoral Linkages with Other Strategic Objectives The following recommendations suggest ways in which linkages with other Strategic Objectives could be strengthened. ƒ As an element in RCSA support for strengthening gender capacity in the SADC Parliamentary Forum, the Mission should invest in strengthening the capacity of regional legislators, through information, training, and technical assistance, to identify and address through legislation or legal reform gender issues affecting other RCSA Strategic Objectives. This would include issues with regard to trade policy, property/land rights, natural resource management, and HIV/AIDS. ƒ Anti-corruption activities should emphasize the impact of corruption on all areas of life and all segments of the population, specifically women. Outreach and advocacy guidelines and training should explicitly highlight the effects of corruption on trade and natural resource management, including how its effects may differ by gender, to help build a greater constituency for anti-corruption efforts. SO2: A MORE INTEGRATED REGIONAL MARKET The rationale for RSCA’s SO2 is based on the hypothesis that deeper regional integration promotes higher economic growth through better resource allocation, greater competition, increased transfer of technology, increased access to foreign savings, and improved food 29 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa security.52 An analysis sponsored by RCSA conservatively projected that developing a regional trade area will almost double regional economic growth over the past 10 years’ average.53 Moreover, a regional trade area would create jobs and raise the standard of living throughout the region. Although the benefits of regional integration are recognized, it is also assumed the process of integration may create “winners” and “losers.” It is also believed that macroeconomic policy, trade reform, and the improvement of physical infrastructure are all key elements affecting the pace and success of integration. Under this assumption, the activities under this Strategic Objective work toward the achievement of (1) reducing trade and investment barriers (IR1), (2) developing more efficient provision of infrastructure (IR2), and (3) building the long-term capacity of private sector and industry associations to advocate for and sustain policy reforms (IR3). RCSA’s activities under SO2 are also geared toward supporting SADC’s agenda for market integration and the establishment of a Free Trade Area as articulated in the its Trade Protocol. Gender and Macroeconomic Issues Recently, focus on the gender implications of macroeconomic reforms has brought to light several issues that deserve attention. It was noted that one of the weaknesses of macroeconomics is its one-sidedness, in that it considers monetary aggregates of the “productive economy” and ignores the human resources aggregate of the “reproductive economy” for which women are largely responsible.54 Although there is a belief that macroeconomics are not linked to gender relations, some argue that macroeconomic conditions have a significant and distinctive impact on women’s lives.55 Therefore, macroeconomic policies such as budgets, taxation, labor and employment policies, monetary and exchange rate policies, market regulations, land markets, financial markets, and government expenditure policies need to be examined from a gender-equality perspective. The argument about the “gendered” nature of macroeconomic policies has started to gain acceptance in the international development paradigm. For example, the United Nations Development Fund (UNIFEM) asked the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) to train government delegates and representatives of the civil society on the different impacts macroeconomic policy reforms have on men and women.56 Similarly, governments have started to examine their budgets to see how their resource allocations and expenditure policies and practices affect men and women. South Africa has been a pioneer in the gender budget initiative. These efforts are spreading in Southern Africa, including training on gender analysis of budgetary practices held for the SADC Parliamentarian Forum in February 2002. The training was organized through a collaborative 52 USAID/RCSA, “Regional Integration Through Partnership Participation,” Gaborone, Botswana, 1997. 53 RCSA, “Regional Integration Through Partnership and Participation,” Gaborone, Botswana, 1997. 54 Elson, D., “Micro, Meso, Macro: Gender and Economic Analysis in the Context of Policy Reform,” Baker, I. et al.,” The Strategic Silence: Gender and Economic Policy, 1994. 55 Baker, I. et al., Ibid. 56 See www.icrw.org for more information. 30 Development Alternatives, Inc. initiative of the Commonwealth, UNIFEM, and the SADC Gender Unit. More such training sessions would enable parliamentarians to make informed decision on issues of economic policies at both national and regional levels. Gender Issues and Trade Liberalization To understand the gender implications of RCSA’s work under SO2, it is important to closely examine the impact of trade liberalization in general. Trade expansion has been viewed as an engine for increasing economic growth. This notion is based on the assumption that increased trade among countries enables them to increase production and export of goods and services on which they have a comparative advantage and to import those that are locally scarce. This is intended to ensure efficient use of factors of production (land, labor, and capital) where more demand is created for the economic resource that is in abundance.57 For example, advocates of trade liberalization and globalization argue that increased openness to regional and global trade will enhance demand for unskilled labor for which developing countries have a comparative advantage and should lead to the creation of more jobs for many in these countries. The experience of increased international trade, however, shows that not all countries have been positively affected by trade liberalization efforts. Asia’s share of export between 1984 and 1994 increased by nearly 7 percent, whereas Africa’s export shares to the world trade decreased by 2 percent during this decade.58 Recent debates have started to question whether measures for trade liberalization alone would generate the intended outcomes. Although trade theories seem to be gender neutral (thus not considering gender as a unit of economic analysis), do trade liberalization measures have gender-differentiated impacts? What are the preconditions that need to be in place for a country to fully benefit from opening up its markets? How does trade liberalization impact poverty and labor standards? Do trade liberalization measures affect men and women differently and exacerbate existing gender inequalities? Is gender inequality a constraint for increasing trade liberalization? What are the positive and negative impacts of trade liberalization measures on informal employment in which women are strongly represented in developing countries? What policy measures do national governments need to put in place in order to adequately respond to deteriorating social conditions as the result of trade liberalization measures? The following brief assessment outlines some points for further discussions on these questions. Research on the impact of trade liberalization on women relative to men shows mixed results. Much of the literature on trade liberalization and gender has attempted to examine three major components: employment, price, and public provision effects.59 Trade liberalization, which led to expansion of export production in Asia, for example, resulted in women’s increased integration into the industrial labor force. Some suggest this may be industry specific, a reflection of a short-term gain only, and point out that women often work 57 This assumption was derived from the trade theory developed by Hecksher and Ohlin. 58 WTO, 1995. 59 Cagatay, N., Trade Gender and Poverty. New York, 2001; Fontana, M., S. Joekes, and R. Masika, “Global Trade Expansion and Liberalization: Gender Issues and Impacts,” IDS Report No. 42., 1998 (revised). 31 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa under harsh conditions with few protections and little job security in these industries. In general, experts agree that women’s increased employment and income have contributed to their economic well-being. In contrast, preliminary findings show that women in sub-Saharan Africa have not directly benefited from expansion in export production.60 The following points illustrate some of the impacts of trade liberalization on women to date: ƒ Women’s increased employment in export production is more common in the manufacturing sector and in semi-industrialized economies than in agriculture-based economies. ƒ Trade liberalization in agriculture-based economies tends to benefit medium- and large￾scale farms, whereas small farms, where women grow many of the food crops, do not usually benefit from such measures. ƒ Women are slow to take advantage of these new opportunities because they lack access to productive assets, including land, technologies, credit, and knowledge about and access to markets.61, 62 ƒ Much of women’s trade related employment occurs in the export processing zones, which are exempted from local labor laws and are characterized by low wages and poor working conditions. Women’s relative gains in employment may be deteriorating because job security, health and occupational safety, and pay may not improve. ƒ Institutions, including markets and the state, transmit gender biases in economic life. ƒ Government revenues tend to decrease as the result of tariff reductions or total elimination of export-import tariffs. This can constrain governments from providing social services and safety nets to vulnerable groups, including women. This ultimately may disadvantage women and their families from receiving services such as education and healthcare, and women are often expected to compensate by taking on responsibility for providing those services. ƒ Recent studies show that gender inequality in households constrain output capacity 63 and trade performance, particularly in agricultural economies where women provide the overwhelming share of unpaid labor. 60 Fontana, M., S. Joekes, and R. Masika, Ibid. 61 Cagatay, N., op. cit.; Fontana, M. et al., Ibid. 62 See Fontana, M. et al., op. cit. 63 Darity, W., 1995, cited in Cagatay, N. op. cit. 32 Development Alternatives, Inc. Gender, Trade, and Investment within SADC Although slow progress toward regional trade liberalization and market integration has been documented within SADC, some progress is notable. Import tariffs in some SADC countries (Malawi, Mozambique, and Zambia) are relatively low as a result of tariff liberalization measures under taken as part of economic reforms of structural adjustment programs. SADC’s Trade Protocol, which was signed in 1996, aims to establish a Free Trade Area eight years after the ratification. The protocol was signed by 11 countries and ratified by 5 member states (Botswana, Mauritius, Namibia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe). Reducing non-tariff barriers is also important to improving intra-regional trade.64 These barriers include communication, customs procedures, transport, market information, trade finance, foreign exchange availability, levies, customs charges, quota restrictions, and domestic content requirements.65 The SADC Trade Protocol has identified only a few non￾tariff barriers such as quantitative restriction, surcharges on imports, customs and other trade restricting procedures, and export subsidies. Non-tariff barriers such as anti-dumping regulations and rules of origin are permitted. One strong criticism of SADC’s Trade Protocol is the lack of consideration of social and labor issues and the extent to which ordinary people are involved in the regional integration process.66, 67 A recent gender analysis of the SADC Trade Protocol was presented to SADC Trade and Investment Ministers and the Council of Ministers.68 It noted that gender issues have not been addressed in the trade and industry sector. The SADC Gender Unit has been charged with developing specific regional programs to ensure improved access by women to resources and economic structures in all countries of the region. The Unit then carried out a gender audit of the trade and investment sector, which provided recommendations to enhance attention to gender within the sector. Their observations and recommendations were: ƒ When analyzing the global and regional trends, it is important to take a holistic view and assess how trade expansion relates to women in their multiple roles as producers, providers of labor, consumers, and social reproducers. ƒ Because most women in SADC operate within the informal sector, it is necessary to extend analysis of globalization and trade liberalization to this sector with particular attention to handicraft industries. ƒ Mechanisms should be developed to ensure greater consultation with and involvement by women in decision-making bodies that formulate trade policies. ƒ Conduct surveys to gather statistics about women’s income and employment status and how these have been affected by recent trade liberalization. 64 “SADC Regional Human Development Report 2000.” 65 Ibid. 66 Blaauw, L. and B. Paul-Henri, “Directing Our Future?” Africa Insight, Vol. 30, Nos. 3-4. 67 Kanyeneze, G., “SADC, Labour and Employment,” Southern Africa Economist, Vol. 14, No. 5, 2001. 68 Molokomme, A., “SADC: Gender and Human Development,” Africa Review, Vol. 14, No. 5. 33 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa ƒ Develop sectoral case studies on how trade policy and trade liberalization will impact on women operating with specific sectors—that is, textiles, agriculture, and services. ƒ Research and promote the development of alternative economic models and organizational structures that will guarantee a larger return of trade benefits directly to small-scale producers. ƒ Advocate for simplified trading procedures and rules for small-scale producers. ƒ Advocate for labor legislation that ensures fair and equitable working conditions in export processing zones. ƒ Undertake regional case studies on common problems and issues related to trade liberalization, which are of concern to all SADC women. ƒ Develop a practical tool for negotiators, decision makers, and analysts. Any form of revision of the Trade Protocol to include gender considerations seems impossible at this point. However, SADC plans to review all protocols from a social development perspective and this may open up avenues for dialogue on gender and trade issues by SADC and its partners. Observers indicated that one issue hindering the ratification process of the SADC Trade Protocol is the lack of regional policy measures in support of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Critiques of the protocol also note that it provides no regional policy measures to guarantee the survival of SMEs.69 Others criticize it for its gender blindness. “There is a conceptual bias, which stems from a policy’s concepts and the assumptions behind them, for example, the way policy makers conceptualize women and men. It discusses trade in economic and political terms, and does not differentiate the social and economic impacts changing trade patterns have on women and men.”70 It has also been argued that measures for eliminating non-tariff barriers, for example, immigration and customs issues, do not create an enabling environment for small enterprises and informal cross-border traders to fully engage in their businesses.71 There is a need to consider affirmative actions to ensure that small businesses (many of which are owned by women) benefit from and are not left out from the markets generated by liberalization.72 Further, the impact of trade liberalization on labor standards affects the rights of workers to organize and collectively bargain with employers. It was noted recently that, as a result of the African Growth Opportunity Act, Lesotho’s textile export in 2001/02 showed a 50 percent 69 SARDC, “Laying an Institutional Foundation for the Trade Protocol,” 1999. http:www.sardc.net/editorial. 70 Pheko, M. “The SADC Trade Protocol and Gender: What Are the Connections?,” 1999. http://www.sardc.net/editorial/sadctoday 71 Peberdy, S., “Visas for Small, Medium and Micro Entrepreneurs from SADC Countries Involved in Cross￾border Trade,” May 2000. http://www.queensu.ca/samp/Comments/Visas.htm. 72 Ibid. 34 Development Alternatives, Inc. rise (U.S. International Trade Commission). The textile industry is now the country’s biggest employer with 40,000 workers. According to the country’s Clothing and Allied Workers Union, however, textile workers are employed under harsh conditions with very low wages and long hours. The union emphasized that these industries often ignore Lesotho’s labor laws and, because of corruption within institutions that were intended to regulate and monitor their codes of conduct, they face little consequences for their actions.73 As women are strongly represented in this industry, it can be assumed that a large number of women workers may have been subjected to these conditions. Analysts from the region suggested that SADC consider the adoption of the regional Social Charter, laying out minimum working conditions. This could be a starting point to avoid undercutting labor standards in the region. In addition, it is important for all SADC member countries to adopt the seven core labor standards of the International Labour Organization. Gender and Informal Cross-Border Trade in Southern Africa The informal (unrecorded) cross-border trade has significance for the region in terms of employment, income, and food security. A USAID study that documented the unrecorded cross-border trade between Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique and their respective bordering countries indicated the economic importance of informal cross-border trade and noted that, in some cases, its value and volume are several times the size of the formal trade.74 For instance, according to informal trade observed from four border districts between Malawi and Mozambique, the non-agricultural export from Malawi was valued at US$ 2.9 million, and agricultural commodities exported from Malawi contributed US$945,000, or 32 percent of total exports. During the same period, Malawi’s import of agricultural commodities from Mozambique was valued at US$6.5 million and non-agricultural products at US$255,000. Commonly traded commodities included agricultural products, mainly maize, rice, beans, sugar, wheat flour, and root crops; industrial manufactured cooking oil, soft drinks, construction materials, textiles (both new and used), petroleum products, and car and bicycle parts; forest resources, such as charcoal and timber; and water resources, which include fish species and prawns. The study also highlighted the high participation of women in the informal cross-border trade and recognized the differentiated role women and men play in this trade in the type of commodities in which they are engaged and the mode of transportation they use. For example, in Malawi, women play a prominent role in trading agricultural products, such as vegetables, and non-agricultural goods, such as hardware and second-hand clothing. Although men dominated the export trade in general, on the Malawi￾Mozambique border, women dominated the firewood trade (64 percent). The gender composition of traders along the borders of Mozambique and its neighboring countries shows that women account for 32.8 percent of the traders. This evidence suggests that significant 73 Extracted from “BBC Business News.” http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/business. 74 SD Publication series, “Estimated of Unrecorded Cross-Border Trade Between Mozambique and Her Neighbors,” USAID Technical Paper No 88, 1998; “Unrecorded Cross-border Trade Between Malawi and Neighboring Countries,” Technical Paper No. 90, 1998; “Unrecorded Cross-border Trade Between Tanzania and Her Neighbors, Implications for Food Security,” Technical Paper No. 89, 1998. 35 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa numbers of women depend on these activities to support their livelihoods and that of their families. A few studies conducted on the gender issues in informal cross-border trade show the constraints women have in conducting their business activities. For example, a WIDTECH study carried out in West Africa in June 2000 identified five main factors that negatively affect women’s business activities in the region. These include lack of affordable and dependable transportation, customs and other payments and procedures, lack of financial services, poor security, and limited information on regional and international markets.75 A similar study conducted in Benin through WIDTECH’s small grants showed that almost half of 500 women traders interviewed indicated taxes, customs and duties, and customs harassment as their main problems affecting their businesses.76 Data are not available to determine how the trade liberalization measures will impact the livelihood activities of many that are engaged in this sector. Policy measures to promote the integration of these business activities into the formal trade are non-existent. There is a general assumption that as movement of goods take place unconstrained within the Free Trade Area of SADC the need for the informal cross-border trade will gradually diminish and people who are now engaged in it will find other jobs. Experience from previous economic policy reforms within the framework of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP), however, proves otherwise as conditions created by the reforms pushed more people to be engaged in the informal economy. Increased informal trading across borders has implications on GDP and government revenues. Although some argue that the expansion of informal cross-border trade was caused mainly by governments’ restrictive trade and investment policies, informal trade continued to dominate even years after the three countries have undertaken economic reforms that should have created a more-enabling environment for increasing the formal trade in the region. Reasons for continued growth of the informal cross-border include high transaction costs, mainly for transportation.77 Thus, even if a given country decides to import certain commodities based on the comparative advantage in the formal trade, it may end up exporting those same items through the informal cross-border market because of low transaction cost at the borders. This suggests that informal cross-border trade may continue to exist even as the trade liberalization measures within SADC are implemented. Summary of Gender Equality Activities under SO2 Currently, three results are listed under SO2: (1) reducing trade and investment barriers to broaden participation in the regional market reduced, (2) development of more efficient provision of infrastructure, and (3) building the long-term capacity of private sector and 75 Morris, M. and S. Mahir, “Women’s Business Links: A Preliminary Assessment of Women’s Cross-Border Trade in West Africa,” August 2000. http:www.widtech.org 76 CEPEPE, “Study on women’s cross-border trade activities,” 2001. http://www.widtech.org 77 Barry, A. and V. Corbett, “Interregional Trade and Food Security in East and Southern Africa: Constraints, Opportunities and the Way Forward,” October 2001 (paper commissioned by USAID/REDSO). 36 Development Alternatives, Inc. industry associations to advocate for and sustain policy reforms. The strategic objective team stated its desire to focus its gender integration efforts on third intermediate result. Thus far, support has been provided to private sector organizations with a large number of women members—for example, the Southern African Enterprise Network (SAEN). SAEN was launched in 1998 based on a unique organizational model first used to establish the West African Enterprise Network in 1993. In November 2001, RCSA approved funds for the SAEN Dialogue Project, which aims to create dialogue among the business community, civil society, and politicians on issues of trade liberalization and investment. Some of the components include tracking and informing the public of parliamentary debates relevant to the business community, and conducting research and organizing formal and informal discussion forums with parliamentarians, NGOs, and the business community. It is hoped that this will stimulate regional dialogue involving relevant actors on policy reform to create an enabling environment for private-sector-led economic growth. Although the project proposal does not make any reference to addressing gender issues as part of the discussion themes, because women’s membership is high in SAEN the SO2 team sees the support to this organization as part of the SO2 gender integration initiative. RCSA also funded the participation of women entrepreneurs in the 2002 “Leadership and Linkages for Women in Trade and Investment” Conference in Gaborone. The conference was organized by the American and African Business Women Alliance, an organization established in 1999 to foster business opportunities and access to markets through networks, linkages, mentoring, and leadership development for women. These supports are important for promoting gender issues and assisting business women to participate in leadership-enhancing training workshops; however, a more systematic strategy needs to be developed to better monitor the impact of these activities. Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO2 Because the current strategy is coming to an end, much of the recommended actions under SO2 are better suited for consideration during the development of the new strategy. Even though the SO2 team sees the value of focusing its gender integration efforts on IR3, this assessment suggests that the team should take advantage of the entry points under all three Intermediate Results. Following are a set of suggested actions for enhancing gender integration throughout the with SO2 program portfolio. IR1: Barriers to Broaden Participation in the Regional Market Reduced This result prioritized its activities into four areas: ƒ Customs, cooperation, and trade facilitation; 37 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa ƒ Trade policy capacity strengthening as SADC Directorate of Trade, Industry, Finance and Investment; ƒ Sanitary and phytosanitary measures (cross-cutting with SO13); and ƒ African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) (supports the three activities above). Direct technical assistance has been provided to SADC by two economists, a senior macroeconomics policy advisor at the Finance and Investment Sector Coordinating Unit (FISCU) and a trade advisor at the Secretariat, for two years. The responsibilities of the senior macroeconomic policy advisor, in addition to supporting three regional workshops on taxation and other related issues, include responding to short-term requests for consulting services related to promoting macroeconomic convergence in the region. Despite the fact that member countries have adopted similar principles in macroeconomics, these have not resulted into region-wide standards in a coordinated and uniform fashion in the areas of interest rates, similar tax rates, and fixed exchange rate regimes. SADC is only in the very early stage of establishing these principles at the regional level, and FISCU is tasked with coordinating these policies. Specifically, FISCU is working on four major macroeconomic convergence programs: budget deficit management, inflation management, exchange rate management, and external debt management. RCSA provides the much-needed technical assistance in building SADC’s capacity to advance the agenda for trade liberalization and market integration. RCSA also supports SADC under a task order, to enhance the capacity of the SADC Secretariat to manage and coordinate regional market integration initiatives and activities. A senior trade advisor provides technical assistance and advice the Secretariat on policy matters that relate to the establishment of the Southern Africa Free Trade Area. Other activities have supported the negotiation process on rules of origin for textiles and clothing. It was noted that other rules of origin negotiations for wheat and wheat products are coming and SO2 will continue to provide technical assistance to these negotiations. Although these measures will enhance the establishment of SADC’s Free Trade Area, it is vital to examine the impact of SADC’s rules of origin on textile and clothing on the livelihoods of many men and women who are engaged in the informal cross-border trade within the region. SO2 also works in collaboration with SO13 on an initiative to develop an annex to the SADC Trade Protocol on sanitary and phytosanitary measures. This would be used as a tool to ensure health and safety of products and to guarantee quality measured by international standards. In an effort to harmonize these measures, activities are being implemented to take an inventory of sanitary and phytosanitary measures within SADC countries. The concern here is what will happen to men and women who trade agricultural products, including vegetables and processed food, particularly as women are strongly represented in cross￾border vegetable trade. It is recommended that the SO2 team: 38 Development Alternatives, Inc. ƒ Promote greater understanding of gender and macroeconomic issues within the region. The first step could be to create greater internal discussions between the SO2 team and its implementing partners, and, by examining regional debates on engendering macroeconomics, assess how these debates relate to RCSA’s programmatic portfolio. ƒ Take stock of its activities and the policy and regulatory frameworks it promotes by examining them from a gender perspective to assess the differentiated implications they will have on women’s and men’s livelihoods. This can be achieved through commissioning study papers and holding workshops and seminars on topics involving a range of stakeholders. Discussions on gender and trade liberalization and market integration are already taking place within the region. Creating forums for discussions and information sharing on trade can promote better understanding of the issues and may close the gap on the different views people may have about the implications of trade liberalization for women and men. Moreover, such discussions may provide an opportunity to present the positive impacts that trade liberalization measures could have on both women and men. ƒ Examine how much women benefit from AGOA in terms of employment and income, and collect gender-relevant data on employment created in each sector. This would complement SO2’s efforts to measure the impact of its activities, including export-owned industries promoted by AGOA. ƒ Examine the recommendations provided by the gender audit of the trade and investment sector of SADC and identify key areas in which RCSA can take the lead in ensuring that women and men are equal beneficiaries of enhanced trade liberalization and regional integration. ƒ Study market institutions in the region from the gender perspective and determine constraining factors women in Southern Africa experience in accessing market information to advance their businesses. ƒ Give considerations to simplifying the certification process for rules of origin to increase the participation of small traders. Efforts need to be made to support the integration of SMEs and the informal cross-border trade into the formal trade sector. ƒ Examine the impact of sanitary and phytosanitary measures on livelihoods and food security in the region. These issues should be discussed with all relevant stakeholders to promote an alternative solution to ease the negative impacts that sanitary and phytosanitary measures may have on women’s and men’s livelihoods. ƒ Continue support to SADC’s efforts to mainstream gender throughout its institutional structure and operation. ƒ Review the SADC Gender Unit’s gender audit on trade and investment sector and explores areas in which collaboration can be identified for future initiatives. 39 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa ƒ Carry out case studies to identify key constraints women experience in cross-border trade. The findings and recommendations can be shared with the regional and national actors. ƒ Support advocacy and policy dialogue efforts of the civil society and other actors in the region for improved labor standards and the adoption of ILO core labor standards by SADC member countries. ƒ Continue support to business associations with strong membership of women in the mobilization and advocacy efforts to influence policy-making in the region. IR2: Develop more efficient provision of infrastructure Under this result, SO2 aims to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of systems in transport, telecommunications and energy. RCSA supports the implementation of transport sector reforms, which create a more market-oriented and competitive environment in this sector. The implementation of these reforms has started to show results. For instance, private sector participation in the region’s rail industry increased from 7 percent in 1997 to an estimated 20 percent in 1999/2000. This has led to an average reduction of 5 percent in transportation costs in 2000. In communications, RCSA’s support has contributed to SADC’s telecommunications policy reform. Support has concentrated on drafting the protocol and the model for legislation and on establishing early development of the Telecommunications Regulators Association of the Southern Africa. As the result of RCSA’s support, the market for mobile communication has grown. It is recommended that, because much of RCSA support under this result focuses on improving systems, SO2’s gender considerations should focus primarily on information dissemination on regulations in these areas so that both men and women can equally take actions to benefit from policy reforms under this result. IR3: Sustainable Regional Integration Advocacy Mechanisms Established This result aims to strengthen the capacity of private associations to advocate for policy reforms. It has addressed gender issues by supporting the participation of women business owners in leadership training workshops. Capacity-enhancing support is provided to private associations through the Strengthening Regional Economies Through Non-governmental Organizations (STRENGTH) activity, implemented by DATEX. Support was provided for training workshops on financial management, business plan development, and development of advocacy plans. Associations supported under IR3 activities include the Federation for East and Southern African Road Transport Association (FESARATA), Association of SADC Chambers of 40 Development Alternatives, Inc. Commerce (ASCCI), Southern Africa Railways Association (SARA), Telecommunications Regulators Association of Southern Africa (TRASA), and Southern Africa Enterprise Network (SAEN). It was noted that women’s membership is almost non-existent in these organizations except in ASCCI and SAEN. Data are not available on the membership of women entrepreneurs and SME operators in the national chambers of commerce. SO2 had established initial contact with the Cross-Border Traders Association (CBTA), in which women’s membership is said to be large and there is interest to further support this association. Women’s business associations, in general, tend to be small, in some cases informal and marginalized. In many countries, women’s membership and participation in the activities of national and local chambers of commerce are limited. Because many women work in the informal sector, their association with formal organizations is limited. Recently, women in the informal sector at both local and international levels have started to mobilize resources and organize themselves to ensure their voices are heard. One such example is the Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO).78 WIEGO recognizes that informal workers are part of the globalizing economy, and they need to organize themselves to respond effectively to new opportunities and risks. The mobilization and organization of women in the informal sector becomes even more significant as more women take part in subcontracted production and processing work in local firms that are contracted by international corporations. Experience suggests that sub￾contracted work often pays less and the working conditions are poor. Forming associations of the informal workers could help strengthen their positions both in terms of contracting and to advocate for policy change. Southern Africa has many women’s business associations. Some associations have started to promote dialogue to discuss specific issues that affect women’s participation in regional trade. RCSA can extend its assistance to these organizations and promote better understanding of issues of gender within the regional market integration framework. The challenge for RCSA is to support the establishment of a women’s business association at the regional level so it can engage in discussions for policy reform that affect women’s livelihoods. It is important for SO2 to be more systematic about its support under this result. Thus, it is recommended that, the SO2 team: ƒ Develop a systematic monitoring of women’s and men’s membership rate of organizations supported under this result; ƒ Provide support to organizations that have relatively high membership of women; ƒ Increase support to Cross-Border Traders Association and monitor equal participation of women and men traders. Provide forums for discussions on issues (gender related) that affect business engagement of women and men cross-border traders in the region. Ensure 78 See http://www.wiego.org 41 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa that informal cross-border traders are informed about the policy reforms and new trade regulations being implemented that may affect their businesses; and ƒ Explore ways to support the establishment of a regional association for women in SME and informal employment. Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO2 The Performance Management Plan of September 2001 outlines SO2’s framework for integrating gender. “Because the indicators for IR1 and IR2 are not amenable to sex￾disaggregation, SO2 has decided to design its gender-related intervention under IR3: Sustainable regional integration advocacy mechanisms established.” It is assumed that surveys carried out for IR3 indicators will target regional committees and associations and that it is possible to collect sex-disaggregated data in the five economic sectors covered under SO2: trade, investment, transport and communications, infrastructure, and energy.79 Moreover, it is believed that it is possible to gain additional insights into gender representation in regional decision-making processes regarding trade, investment, and transport by recording and tracking the levels of female representation in different regional committees and associations. The information collected through these surveys will inform the SO team on gender-based constraints to development and help the team make decisions on what is required in the implementation of its programs. SO2 Indicators ƒ Indicator 1—Increased value of intra-SADC trade. ƒ Indicator 2—Proportion of intra-SADC imports subject to tariffs in excess of 10 percent. ƒ Indicator 3—Cost of transporting imports. ƒ Indicator 4—Proportion of regional telecommunications protocol policies adopted and of telecommunication regulatory guidelines and operational standards harmonized. ƒ Indicator 5—Extent of telecommunications service provision. ƒ Indicator 6—Proportion of regional transport protocol policies adopted and transport sector regulatory guidelines and operational standards harmonized. ƒ Indicator 7—Rail wagon (turnaround time) RSIS project. ƒ Indicator 8—Capacity Utilization and Railways. 79 “Draft Performance Management Plan for SO2,” September 2001. 42 Development Alternatives, Inc. ƒ Indicator 9—Road cargo container. ƒ Indicator 10: Standard deviation between country prices. ƒ Indicator 11—Number of constituents who know key representatives in regional forums, number of constituents who know key integration issues in their sectors. ƒ Indicator 12—Extent of private sector involvement in infrastructure services— telecommunications, railways, and energy. ƒ Indicators 13/14—Volume/price of electricity traded in regional electricity market. ƒ Indicator 15—Cost of SADC telecommunications to businesses. ƒ Indicators 16/17—Budget deficit/debt to GDP. ƒ Indicator 18—Non-tariff barriers index. ƒ Indicators 19/20—USA exports, imports in agriculture and trade. Even though the IR1 and IR2 indictors do not allow for sex-dissagregated data collection and SO2 does not report achievements under IR3, results on gender integration can be monitored and reported in the narrative section of the R4. Including selective best practices on women’s participation in the dialogue and decisions of trade policy reforms can provide better information on SO2 results in alleviating gender-based constraints to trade liberalization and economic growth in the region. Recommendations for Strengthening SO2 Cross-sectoral Linkages with Other Strategic Objectives SO2 has established a close working relationship with the SADC’s Parliamentary Forum and provides direct technical assistance to enhance its effectiveness. This linkage could be a fertile ground for SO2 to promote better understanding among SADC Parliamentarians Forum, the civil society, and other relevant parties about issues of gender, trade, and investment as well as macroeconomic convergence. Moreover, the provision of capacity building training to the Forum on gender enables Parliamentarians to make informed decision. Collaboration with the SADC Gender Unit can be sought, as it is keen to carry out similar activities. Cross-sectoral linkages between SO2 and SO13 already exist. The SO teams have initiated collaboration by working on sanitary and phytosanitary for agriculture. They could expand this by exploring gender integration initiatives under the sanitary and phytosanitary activity. SO2 can also link with other SOs by focusing on how men’s and women’s risks and vulnerabilities to HIV/AIDS affect and are affected by economic policies and practices. 43 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa SO12: INCREASED REGIONAL COOPERATION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SHARED NATURAL RESOURCES SO12 seeks to increase the cooperation of national governments and communities in the management of shared watercourses, critical ecosystems, and migratory wildlife through the creation of trans-boundary natural resource management areas (TBNRMAs). (These are large tracts of land straddling the boundaries of two or more countries that share a large-scale ecosystem.) SO12 also provides policy and institutional support, and environmental monitoring. The SO12 strategy focuses on four Intermediate Results: ƒ IR1—Viable practices for sustainable management of shared natural resources adopted (focused on trans-boundary activities) ƒ IR2—Policies, protocols, and agreements enacted ƒ IR3—Organizations and institutions capable of effective regional intervention ƒ IR4—Ecological monitoring systems for decision making improved The following section reviews gender issues pertinent to natural resource management, summarizes actions and plans to date under SO12 to address gender, and recommends actions to strengthen gender integration in program activities and performance assessment and reporting. Gender Issues in Environment and Natural Resource Management in Southern Africa Numerous studies indicate that, because of differing gender roles, men and women frequently use different resources or use the same resources differently and therefore develop different knowledge and expertise associated with this use patterns. Men and women are also affected differently by resource scarcity, degradation, and depletion. To better manage the resource base and improve community welfare, it is essential that conservation and development efforts take into account these gender differences, understand differing incentives to manage resources effectively, and involve both women and men in decision making regarding resource use and conservation. Women in Southern Africa, especially in rural areas, bear the primary responsibility for domestic activities, including obtaining water, firewood, and food for family subsistence. Men are more likely to be involved in activities such as supplying game and fish, periodic clearing of ground, cattle herding, and community security. Although men are also engaged in agriculture, they are more likely to cultivate cash crops than food crops. A case study in Tanzania, for example, indicated that cash crops were completely controlled by men, including marketing and use of the proceeds, while control over food crops was more or less jointly shared.80 80 Sigot, A. et al., ed., Towards Common Ground: Gender and Natural Resource Management in Africa, 1995, pp. 8, 71-72. 44 Development Alternatives, Inc. Although the occupations of men are more descriptive of their relationship to natural resources, such as “fisherman,” “herder,” or “farmer,” women’s work is often invisible or not explicitly recognized, cloaked under the catchall title of “housewife.” To find out what women do, it is necessary to ask them to define specific tasks. Women are engaged primarily in subsistence farming and related enterprises such as small animal husbandry and sometimes fishing. They also use natural resources to generate family income. Women have information on the varieties of wild fruits and plants that are important supplements in the diets of poor rural people and on the medicinal uses of plants. They have expertise in harvesting and processing forest products and in areas such as the burning properties of various wood species. Women in Southern Africa rely upon wild plants for food, medicines, construction, and tools and income generation. Baskets made by women from palm leaves in Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Zambia constitute an important craft export, while tubers of the grapple plant found in western Botswana are exported for use as arthritis medicine. Women are also active in the capture and processing of wildlife. In Zambia, for example, women rarely participate in elephant hunts but inform men when elephants are sighted; after the kill, women perform most of the butchering and they process the meat and other products. In Botswana, women collect wild birds’ eggs, including ostrich, consume the yolks, and use the cleaned-out eggshells as water containers. In Botswana, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, women gather caterpillars for sale to buyers who sell them in urban markets. In parts of northern Botswana, women communally engage in river fishing, using baskets. In Zimbabwe and Zambia, fish processing and marketing are done primarily by women.81 Because these activities are so dependent on natural resources, potential losses from environmental degradation are high. Deforestation may reduce women’s incomes by restricting the availability of non-timber forest products and firewood for processing food and other products.82 In Malawi, for example, 90 percent of energy is supplied by firewood; however, a decline in forest cover at a rate of 3.5 percent per year has led to a severe imbalance in the supply and demand for firewood. One-third of the women in Malawi travel at least an hour a day to collect firewood.83 Moreover, Southern Africa is threatened by desertification, resulting in soil degradation and water scarcity. In Tanzania, 69 percent of women walk at least 1 kilometer to their water source; 17.9 percent walk 2-3 kilometers, and 11.2 percent walk 5 kilometers or more. The time—as much as three to four hours a day—and the energy spent fetching water, as well as firewood, detract from both domestic and income-generating activities.84 81 Mehra, R. “Gender in Community Development and Resource Management: An Overview,” 1993, pp. 4-5. 82 Paolisso, M. “New Directions for the Study of Women and Environmental Degradation,” 1995, p. 8. 83 Green, C. “Women and Development in Malawi,” BRIDGE Report No. 23, May 1994, p. 13. 84 “Women in the SADC Region: the Facts,” op. cit., no page numbers. 45 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa Access to and Control of Land and Inputs Traditional or customary tenure systems in pastoral or agricultural societies may enable people to meet their basic economic needs and to use available resources in a sustainable manner. Both women and men are expected to contribute in specific ways to the economic survival of households, so both are generally assigned use rights to resources, including land, that correspond with their responsibilities. A study in Mozambique, for example, found that, because employment opportunities in rural coastal communities were limited, women’s rights to marine resources were critical to provisioning households and ensuring their survival. All women in a village were granted collective rights to an intertidal zone, which ensured some catch every day. Sustainability of the resource was ensured by limiting the number of fishers to the number of women in a village, with fishing for particular species limited to specific periods. However, even in such a case where the key elements of tenure security are in place, women’s rights are less secure than those of men because these rights are mediated by male family members and could be overlooked or changed.85 Because women’s property rights in such traditional systems in patrilineal societies derive from women’s status as wives or wards—mothers, daughters, sisters, or widows—rather than in their own right, women often lose their rights when their status within the household changes—that is, if they are divorced, widowed, or abandoned. Women obtain land rights through men, and any rights granted to women are limited to specific uses, and perhaps times, to ensure they can meet their obligation of providing certain foods for their households. Even in matrilineal and matrilocal communities, women do not actually own land. Such lands are held communally, with rights devolving from mother to daughter. Moreover, whether women acquire land through matrilineal descent or obtain use rights through male relatives, their plots tend to be small, fragmented, and of low quality. Because such use rights are not legally protected outside the local community, they tend to be highly vulnerable to changes in political and economic conditions. When land or property rights are changed at the national level, women’s rights are often neglected. Land reform efforts that introduced nationwide codes, registered land, and granted titles have mostly overlooked women, giving titles to male heads of household. In much of Africa, women were not given title to land even though they may have had customary use rights prior to registration programs.86 A study in Zimbabwe in 1994 found that women had no legal access to communal lands, and that only 23 percent of women had use rights through their husbands. In resettlement areas, only 40-60 percent of married women had use rights. Widows had no inheritance rights. Because of the temporary and precarious nature of their land use rights, women felt insecure and had no incentive to invest because investments would yield benefits for their husbands or male children and not for themselves. It is clear that insecure tenure does not provide an incentive to invest in land conservation and improvements, both of which are linked to increased productivity and sustainability.87 85 Mehra, R. “Women, Land and Sustainable Development,” 1995, pp. 8-9. 86 Ibid., pp. 7-12. 87 Ibid., pp. 12, 14. 46 Development Alternatives, Inc. Government programs and donor-supported development and conservation projects often fail to take women’s activities and needs into account; even worse than failing to benefit women, sometimes these efforts have had a negative impact. Conservation programs for large mammals in Botswana endangered women’s crops, forcing women to sometimes spend nights cracking bullwhips to make noise to keep elephants away from their fields. Large populations of mammals can also limit women’s access to other wild products if danger from animals blocks access to such resources. Further, extension personnel in two community￾based wildlife projects in Botswana provided training only for men. Women interviewed felt they had been overlooked by extension personnel and pointed out that large mammals were just as much their concern as men’s.88 Although project designers and extension agents often assume that newly introduced methods to increase productivity or improve conservation will have similar impacts on women and men, this is often not true because of differing roles and responsibilities. A conservation project in Namibia attempted to give the community a stake in conserving its own resources while attracting tourists, by establishing a craft market where people could sell baskets made from palm and by also promoting conservation of the palms. It soon became clear that the strategy was not working—the palm trees were dying at an accelerated rate. Discussions with the “community” that developed the strategy had meant talking mostly to men. Women, who made palm baskets to hold milk, a resource that traditionally belonged to women, had been excluded, and they felt their right to use and control milk had been undermined because project staff had negotiated with men to monitor the use of palm trees. The solution was to include women in the discussion, and they then assumed responsibility for monitoring the trees themselves, making tree conservation successful.89 Technical information seldom reaches women because the methods used to disseminate information tend to favor men and extension agents are usually male. Although lack of female staff is a continuing problem, lack of training in working with women is a constraint that affects both male and female staff, who generally lack understanding and appreciation of the roles women play in natural resource management and of appropriate techniques to reach and involve women. A common misconception is that information provided to male heads of households will automatically reach women in the household. In fact, women and men have different channels of communication and receive information from different sources and in different ways. Also, providing information only to male household heads excludes households headed by women. In parts of Africa, up to 50 percent of households may be headed by women. The participation of women in extension and training programs is also limited because of their relative lack of education, lack of control over land, and time constraints imposed by multiple household and economic activities.90 Participation in Decision Making 88 Mehra, R. “Gender in Community Development and Resource Management,” op. cit., pp. 16-17. 89 Ibid., p. 15. 90 Ibid., pp. 16-18. 47 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa As the foregoing example from Namibia illustrates, an ostensibly gender-neutral initiative may be biased against women. If women do not participate in meetings to determine plans that will affect their activities with regard to natural resource use, they may not collaborate in carrying out plans effectively, thereby endangering the effort. Men typically dominate formal leadership roles and positions. Women’s formal involvement is scarce at all levels, from local positions to the ranks where official environmental policies are determined. This institutional bias is exacerbated by the fact that project designers and organizers often overlook women.91 At both the institutional and the family levels, women tend to be excluded from decisions concerning land use and natural resource management. Men make most decisions on the use and allocation of resources at the household level. Men tend to represent women in all matters connected to land, as well as politics and village government. Women may feel unable to make key decisions in their husbands’ absence and fear making any changes in the status quo. As a result of traditional male dominance in rural areas, women are frequently not represented on committees that make decisions about natural resource management. Many customs and laws still discriminate against women. In Zimbabwe, for example, a husband has legal control over any agricultural or forestry products his wife generates. If a woman becomes divorced or widowed, she loses her right to live on her husband’s property and access to the fields and trees she planted during the marriage.92 Women often lack awareness and self-confidence. They are not accustomed to formal decision-making processes. Even when women do attend village meetings, men usually still dominate the proceedings. CAMPFIRE (Communal Area Management Program for Indigenous Resources) in Zimbabwe has conducted training to highlight contributions of both women and men, including managerial and practical skills and assertiveness for women. As a result, most CAMPFIRE areas have women on their wildlife committees, even though wildlife management is traditionally a male domain.93 Summary of Gender Equality under SO12 SO documentation includes references to the importance of participation by women as well as men in natural resource management and states that gender-disaggregated data on the communities will be collected. 94 Further, the Performance Monitoring Plan states that “gender is integrated in every level of the strategy, from the analysis of barriers that prevent access and participation in the political and economic life to encouraging/requiring sensitivity in establishing development partners. Implementing partners and contractors are obliged to monitor gender impacts.”95 Nonetheless, evidence of efforts to address gender 91 “Gender and Community Conservation,” Gender Matters Quarterly, No. 3, June 2001, p. 4 (online version). 92 “Women in CAMPFIRE: Shaping their own Development,” Fact Sheet No. 9, p. 3. http://www.campfire￾zimbabwe.org/facts_09.html. 93 Ibid., pp. 6-7. 94 USAID RCSA SO3 Strategy Amendment, November 1999, p. 17 (SO3 is now SO12). 95 RCSA, Performance Monitoring Plan Amendment, SO12, June 2000, p. 18. 48 Development Alternatives, Inc. issues in SO12 is limited. The following sections indicate the status of attention to gender under each Intermediate Result. IR1—Viable Practices for Sustainable Management of Shared Natural Resources Adopted This Intermediate Result encompasses the establishment and implementation of trans￾boundary natural resource management areas (TBNRMAs):96 Currently, efforts are underway to mobilize and implement establishment of two TBNRMAs, the Gaza-Kruger-Gonarezhou (GKG) area joining Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe; and the Four Corners area (Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe). Technical assistance and implementation agreements were initiated for both these TBNRMAs, and contractors and grantees were in place by mid-2001. A draft inter-governmental agreement established a third TBNRMA, ZIMOZA (Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Zambia), which is not yet officially a part of the Strategic Objective 12 portfolio but is expected to be incorporated in it. The design for activities in the Limpopo River Basin (Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) has not yet been completed. With regard to gender, the following was observed: ƒ Available project documentation for the two current TBNRMAs makes limited reference to gender; however, RCSA staff appears to be supportive of increased attention to gender. The RFA for the GKG TBNRMA reportedly included a requirement to address gender, and the winning proposal mentioned that gender would be addressed in promoting community natural-resource-based economic activities and that short-term technical assistance on gender would be provided. However, such activities have not yet been initiated.97 A GKG quarterly performance report highlights issues regarding community participation in natural resource policy development, TBNRMA management, and natural-resource related economic activities but makes no mention of gender issues. A community survey has been designed to document natural resource use. The survey specifies that demographic, education, and health data should be disaggregated by sex and age group but does not explicitly specify gender disaggregation of agricultural, natural-resource-based, and non-resource-based productive activities, leaving it unclear whether such data will be disaggregated.98 ƒ The concept paper for the Four Corners TBNRMA notes that, at the end of three years, gender considerations are integrated into TBNRMA activities.99 However, the RFA for the Four Corners cooperative agreement reportedly did not specifically require attention to gender and gender was not included in selection scoring, although it may be possible to 96 TBNRMA activities also contribute to the other three Intermediate Results: agreements enacted, organizations strengthened, and ecological monitoring. 97 Interview with RCSA Activity Manager. 98 DAI, “GKG TBNRM Initiative Quarterly Performance Report, 3rd Quarter 2001,” October 2001, Annex B. 99 “Concept Paper, Caprivi/Okavango/Chobe/Hwange/Victoria Falls/Mos-oa-Tunya/Kafue Transboundary Natural Resources Management Area Initiative (Four Corners),” n.d., no page numbers. 49 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa modify the agreement to require attention to gender.100 There is no mention of gender in the first semi-annual report on the technical assistance cooperative agreement.101 ƒ TBNRMAs provide for stakeholder participation in decision making, particularly at the community level, and for the involvement of community-based organizations in decisions and in monitoring, which is favorable to emphasizing participation by women as well as men. However, there are no specific provisions or requirements as to how participation by both women and men should be promoted or any indication of technical capacity or budgetary allocations to do so. ƒ Similarly, community-based enterprises will be promoted, which offers an opportunity to significantly benefit both women and men, but specific measures to ensure participation and benefit by both sexes have not yet been developed. ƒ Data on exchange visit participants and learning site visitors will be disaggregated by sex in a performance indicator. IR2—Policies, Protocols, and Agreements Enacted (SO12 provides support for the development and ratification of the Environment and Wildlife Protocols) SADC protocols dealing with the environment and natural resources enacted to date do not make any reference to gender.102 According to the SADC Gender Unit, most SADC protocols are not gender sensitive because they were developed before the Gender Unit was established. There has been some consultation with the Unit on newer protocols, but it has not been systematic. There is no indication that an additional RCSA-supported activity under this IR, to produce a guide to natural-resource-based community tourism facilities and operators, includes any attention to gender. IR3—Organizations and Institutions Capable of Effective Regional Intervention The Regional Networking and Capacity Building Initiative for Southern Africa (NETCAB) was recently extended until September 30, 2003. NETCAB aims to enhance the capacity of Southern Africa’s government institutions and NGOs and community-based organizations to address regional environmental policy and natural resource management issues more effectively. It supports effective networking, enabling policy environments, better access to information, improvement of institutional sustainability, and improved management systems. Sub-grants support activities such as environmental education, law, and policies; wildlife management; and rural subsistence agriculture and resource management. NETCAB, judging 100 Interview with RCSA Activity Manager. 101 African Wildlife Foundation, “Four Corners TBNRMA Semi-Annual Report for the Period 1st April to 30th September 2001.” 102 Documents reviewed for attention to gender were the Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement, the Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems, and the Charter of the Regional Tourism Organization of Southern Africa (RETOSA). The Environment Protocol is still under development. 50 Development Alternatives, Inc. from a brief reference in the 2001 annual report, evidently provides for attention to gender issues within socio-economic studies done in support of TBNRMAs, but there is no mention of other areas in which gender may be addressed, other than disaggregating participants in some training workshops by sex.103 IR4—Ecological Monitoring Systems for Decision Making Improved The amended Performance Monitoring Plan for SO12 notes that RCSA proposes to support and facilitate the development and sharing of community-based ecological monitoring methods;104 however, there is no detail or any specific reference to including attention to gender. Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO12 Recommendations are grouped by Intermediate Results and apply to both the current strategy and the new strategy. IR1—Viable Practices for Sustainable Management of Shared Natural Resources ƒ Support site-specific studies within TBNRMAs to determine resource use, control or ownership, management, and benefit by all population groups, by sex, age, ethnicity, and other relevant variables. ƒ Include the technical assistance and implementation contractors and grantees for each of the TBNRMAs in the gender training to be provided by WIDTECH (Annex D), and issue a formal notice to each that attention to gender in technical assistance, implementation actions, and reporting is required and will be monitored by RCSA. If necessary, a modification should be made to the cooperative agreement for Four Corners to require attention to gender. For future TBNRMAs, ensure that RFAs and similar solicitation documents require attention to gender, with specificity as to areas where attention to gender is essential and required staff expertise and budget provisions, and include attention to gender in scoring proposals. ƒ Ensure that information disseminated to communities on natural resource management and economic opportunities in the TBNRMAs reaches women as well as men, including women’s organizations and NGOs concerned with women or gender issues, by promoting and supporting the development of gender-sensitive dissemination strategies and methodologies, based on site-specific research. 103 IUCN-ROSA, “NETCAB Annual Report,” October 2001, p. 16. 104 Performance Monitoring Plan Amendment, op. cit., p. 7. 51 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa ƒ Ensure that TBNRM models incorporate a gender focus, particularly in community-based natural resource management. For example, guidelines for community resource boards and other entities involved in decision making should require that the interests of all groups using natural resources be represented (based on site-specific research), with specific reference to equitable representation by gender. Technical assistance and training should be provided as needed to ensure such broad participation in decision making. ƒ Actively promote sustainable natural-resource-based businesses, community tourism enterprises, and other economic activities related to natural resource management that significantly involve and benefit women as well as men; track the number of these activities as a percentage of all activities and the number of participants or employees and levels of benefits received (that is, increased income, or use of profits to improve community facilities) by gender. IR2—Policies, Protocols, and Agreements Enacted ƒ Promote attention to gender in SADC protocols and related regional policies and agreements with regard to natural resources, for which gender is a relevant factor, in collaboration with the SADC Gender Unit. If necessary, provide support for consultations and workshops on gender issues relevant to protocols and agreements. IR3—Organizations and Institutions Capable of Effective Regional Intervention ƒ Require NETCAB to intensify technical assistance and other activities with regard to gender and to strengthen reporting on the results of such assistance. Regional organizations, NGOs and community-based organizations should be assisted to develop their capacities to advocate and implement natural resource management policies and programs with a gender focus; to promote women’s participation in and benefit from community-based natural resource management; and to provide gender-sensitive environmental education, including developing their capacity to provide gender training. ƒ Provide support to add a gender-in-natural resource management specialist to the SADC Gender Unit, which lacks expertise in this area, to help institutionalize gender integration in SADC protocols, policies, and activities with regard to natural resource management. IR4—Ecological Monitoring Systems for Decision Making Improved ƒ Support the development of community-based ecological monitoring methodologies that emphasize the involvement of both women and men because natural resource use and knowledge vary greatly by gender; ensure that both men and women understand the impact of their activities on natural resources. 52 Development Alternatives, Inc. Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO12 The Performance Monitoring Plan states that implementing partners and contractors are obliged to monitor and report on gender impacts.105 Nonetheless, there has been very little attention to or reporting on gender and only one current performance indicator has a gender dimension. Suggestions for indicators and narrative reporting should be taken into account to the extent possible during the remainder of the current strategy period and should be considered in developing performance monitoring for the new strategy. There are three SO-level indicators, none of which has any reference to gender. ƒ Indicator 1—Number of TBNRMAs established. ƒ Indicator 2—Conclusion of actions critical to the achievement of trans-boundary cooperation, as measured by the cumulative number of 11 defined actions concluded. ƒ Indicator 3—Natural resource management agreements concluded within TBNRMAs, as measured by the cumulative number of agreements. The following suggestion applies to Indicator 2 or to similar indicators that may be developed for the new strategy. ▪ Some of the critical actions listed for Indicator 2 could be revised to specifically incorporate attention to gender, thus ensuring that this dimension is incorporated in all fundamental aspects of TBNRMAs because, the more explicit references to gender are, the more likely gender will be taken into account. For example, the list of actions could be modified as follows: ƒ Preliminary assessment studies concluded detailing natural resource use, control, and benefits by all population groups, including women. ƒ Consultative workshops representative of all population groups undertaken. ƒ Detailed gender-sensitive strategic and action plans for implementation concluded. ƒ Gender-sensitive joint sectoral plans developed. ƒ Gender-sensitive joint/co-management plan drafted. ƒ Gender-sensitive joint management body established. 105 Performance Monitoring Plan, op. cit., p. 18. 53 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa IR1—Viable practices for sustainable management of shared resources adopted The two indicators are: ƒ Viable practices applied within TBNRMAs, measured by the cumulative number of defined practices. ƒ Viable practices for sustainable natural resource management disseminated in the region, measured by the number of individuals and organizations receiving information through RCSA-funded mechanisms, including learning site and exchange visits and training programs, to be disaggregated by gender of participants. Although useful to retain the gender-disaggregated participant indicator, it is insufficient as an indicator of attention to gender. Therefore, the first indicator, or similar future indicators, should be modified to ensure that viable practices are gender sensitive. Specifically, viable practices should be defined to include attention to gender: ƒ Natural-resource-based economic activities that involve and benefit both women and men. This would be based on activity-level data: dimensions to be monitored and reported at the activity level would include the percentage of total economic activities supported that significantly benefit women; the number of participants or employees of such activities, by gender; and, if possible, the levels of benefit received, by gender. ƒ Community-level monitoring involving both women and men practiced. ƒ Gender-sensitive natural resource management plans. IR2—Policies, protocols, and agreements enacted The two current indicators are: ƒ SADC protocols ratified (cumulative number). ƒ Progress toward the ratification of protocols (by milestones achieved, according to a defined list). It may be useful to modify the second indicator to encourage attention to gender, especially if support for additional environment-related protocols is contemplated and if RCSA is able to provide support to develop greater environmental expertise within the SADC Gender Unit, or specialized expertise on gender to SADC during protocol consultations and drafting. This could be done by defining the initial milestones: ƒ Consultations initiated, including consultations on gender issues. 54 Development Alternatives, Inc. ƒ Protocol drafted, including attention to gender where relevant. IR3—Organizations and institutions capable of effective regional intervention The current indicator for this Intermediate Result is: ƒ Institutions providing key services during the establishment of targeted TBNRMAs, measured by the cumulative number of institutions providing a defined list of key services. It would be useful to modify the definition for this indicator: ƒ Number of organizations providing any key services during the establishment of targeted TBNRMAs. Key services must be gender sensitive as appropriate and include: (same list as currently). IR4—Ecological monitoring systems for decision making improved Current indicators are: ƒ Availability of bi-annual Regional State of the Environment Report. ƒ Institutions using appropriate ecological monitoring systems, measured by number of institutions in targeted TBNRMAs. The second indicator does not break out community-based monitoring. Depending on the emphasis given to community-based monitoring, it may be useful to add an indicator. ƒ Number of communities or community-based organizations in targeted TBNRMAs in which both women and men are engaged in community-based ecological monitoring. Narrative Performance Reporting Activity-level performance reporting should be substantially strengthened with regard to efforts made to integrate attention to gender and the impact of such efforts on the results achieved. RCSA’s annual performance reporting should also reflect such progress, especially when attention to gender has had an impact on results. For example, if TBNRMA surveys on resource use are disaggregated by gender and, as a result, an effort is made to involve both female and male resource users in consultations, planning, and management of the TBNRMA, this should be reported as an explanation of results. Similarly, if resource-based economic activities are promoted and developed that significantly benefit women as well as men, it should be reported as a result enhancing sustainable natural resource management. 55 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa Notable improvements in policies or in institutional capacity to address gender issues also should be reported. In the introductory summary of the Strategic Objective, it would be useful to note that attention to gender is an integral part of the strategy because of gender-differentiated resource use patterns and the need to ensure the involvement of all segments of the population in effective natural resource management. This would provide a context for subsequent specific references to gender. Recommendations for Strengthening SO12 Cross-Sectoral Linkages with Other Strategic Objectives The following are cross-sectoral linkages with other Strategic Objectives in which the gender dimension is relevant and should be strengthened. ƒ Increased emphasis on gender issues in participation in natural resource management and decision making will enhance regional capacity in favor of democracy by broadening participation and enhance effective cooperation in natural resource management. ƒ Because of the close link between agriculture, natural resource use, and property rights, efforts to enhance women’s decision making, use, and rights over natural resources, especially land, should also enhance their agricultural productivity and their ability to engage in agricultural-processing activities that contribute both to food security and family income. SO13: EXPANDED COMMERCIAL MARKETS FOR AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES AND COMMODITIES IN SADC Initially, RCSA’s support to agricultural development and natural resource management was provided under a combined Strategic Objective. Following internal and external consultations, it was decided to create two separate Strategic Objectives—one for natural resources (SO12) and one for agriculture (SO13). SO13 was approved in January 2000. The rationale behind RCSA’s engagement in supporting agricultural development is based on the recognition that growth in this sector is critical for poverty reduction because the majority of the population derives its livelihood from agriculture. SO13 builds on USAID’s success in agricultural research on drought-tolerant crops, such as sorghum, millet, cassava, and sweet potatoes, and on control of heart water disease. More than 40 varieties of these crops and several animal health products have been researched, field tested, and are ready for use in marginal lands and on large scale. SO13 reoriented its program focus from technology development and dissemination to creating an enabling environment for expanding markets and increasing industrial use of agricultural commodities. The Strategic Objective is committed to promote a market-based approach for 56 Development Alternatives, Inc. the commercialization of agricultural commodities in selected countries. This Strategic Objective is based on the following key assumptions: ƒ A commercial market approach will provide incentives for a variety of economic actors and stakeholders to participate in the marketing process. RCSA will engage the full market chain: from producers to supporting agribusinesses to food processors to consumers. The reliance on a market-based approach will address key supply and demand constraints, thereby increasing cross-border trade and investment. ƒ Key policy constraints which will be addressed include non-tariff barriers related to agriculture standards, sanitary and phytosanitary regulations, transfer of germplasm, and intellectual property rights. Gender and Agricultural Productivity Any effort to enhance growth in productivity and expansion of trade in this sector cannot ignore women’s roles as laborers in production, post-harvest processing, storage, and trade in agricultural produce and locally processed food. Significant factors in the gender analysis of the agricultural sector in sub-Saharan Africa include gender division of labor and intra￾household gender relations and decision making in terms of access to and distribution of resources, including productive assets. Studies on the gender division of labor in agriculture have contributed to better understanding of the different contributions of men and women, but have also showed the interdependence of market and household economies. In sub-Saharan Africa, men tend to produce cash crops whereas women are primarily involved in producing food for small markets and household consumption. Women also provide labor on family plots. Case studies in different communities showed that in some instances women and men work on separate plots whereas in others, they might have joint plots on which both work. Studies have compared productivity of men’s and women’s plots within the same household. In Zambia, it was noted that if women enjoyed the same overall degree of capital investment in agricultural inputs including land as their male counterparts, the output of women could increase by up to 15 percent. Although women in many cases provide unpaid family labor on men’s plots, which often produce commercial crops, women are often unable to mobilize family labor for their plots.106 In some cases, men use all means, including violence and intimidation toward family members, to mobilize labor for their fields.107 Some analysts suggest that low supply 106 See Alberti, A., “Issues Surrounding Wage Employment in Agribusiness: Emphasis on Women,” Working Paper, August 1999. 107 Jones, C., 1983, “The Mobilization of women’s labor for cash crop production: a game theoretic approach,” American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 65, No. 5: 1049-54. In Whitehead A. and N. Kabeer, op. cit., 2001. 57 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa response in African agriculture is mainly because of women’s unwillingness to work on men’s export crops where they receive little or no return for their labor inputs.108 Time constraints of women in rural areas also affect their productivity in agriculture and non￾farm economic activities. The multiple responsibilities of women, at home and outside, hinder their ability to respond to economic incentives.109 Time-saving technologies can beneficial to household economies because they make production more efficient for each unit of labor used. This also reduces opportunity costs for young girls so they do not have to forgo school to substitute for their mothers and other adult women’s labor at home. The inequalities in land and their implications on economic growth have been addressed earlier. In fact, experts perceive women’s lack of access to land is one of the main factors that inhibit development. “…Denial of access to land to women is highly inefficient, as well as unjust and anti-poor…”110 In recognition of women’s lack of rights on property, USAID’s Office of Women in Development awarded small grants to groups in Kenya, Malawi, Namibia, and Tanzania111 to (1) advocate, report on, or seek to inform women and/or government officials, judicial, and legal professions of women property and inheritance rights; and (2) enhance efforts of governmental institutions and NGOs to address property and inheritance issues in these countries. In addition, African women have limited access to credit. Evidence suggests that women receive less than 10 percent of credit that is provided to small farmers and 1 percent of the total credit to agriculture. This situation in part stems from women’s lack of collateral, low literacy and numeracy skills, and limited access to market institutions and market information. In many countries, where women’s and men’s lives are governed by customary laws, women often must have the consent of their husbands to apply for credit. In conclusion, the gender nature of agriculture in terms of the division of labor and access to and control over productive assets (land, technology and financial capital) affects productivity in the sector. Significant attention needs to be paid to addressing these issues if efforts aimed at enhancing agricultural productivity and trade are to be successful. Gender and Agricultural Market Liberalization Many SADC countries have undertaken economic reforms (as part of the Structural Adjustment programs) that reduced the role of the state in controlling the function and performance of the market institutions and minimizing the legal and administrative barriers 108 Darity (1995) in Whitehead and N. Kabeer, op. cit., 2001. 109 Palmer, I. 110 Lipton, M., “Escaping Poverty: The Poor’s Productive Resource Needs,” A Keynote Address at IFPRI’s “Sustainable Food Security for All by 2020” Conference, September 2001. 111 http://www.usaid.gov/wid/activities/ngosg.htm. 58 Development Alternatives, Inc. to trade. Privatization and trade liberalization have benefited primarily medium and large￾scale commercial farms, as is the case in Malawi.112 A key to understanding how market liberalization measures differently affect men and women is the analysis of the gender nature of agricultural marketing systems. For example, do women and men have different entry points to agricultural trade (as wholesalers or retailers)? What are the agricultural goods in which women and men trade? Do women and men have different motives for engaging in agricultural trade? Do women and men have equal access to market institutions such as cooperatives or market information? How do women and men agricultural producers respond to price changes in the market? Does the dual role of agriculture for household and markets create gender differences or limit incentives for agricultural productivity and trade? Men, who tend to have more education and greater access to start-up capital than women, often enter the trading business as wholesalers. Conversely, women in sub-Sahara Africa tend to concentrate in low-profit, small-scale operations buying, selling, and trading vegetables and processing food. A small segment of women traders do accumulate capital and assets and expand their businesses, as is the case in some West African countries. In Zimbabwe, women dominate the highly perishable fresh vegetable market. Women’s incentive for trading often stems from the need to acquire additional cash income to support their families. Liberalization of agricultural trade has benefited women traders as local food production and trading have increased. “Women and men are differently located in marketing systems by commodity, by point in the market chain and organizational form, by motivation, as well as by spatial mobility and season.”113 Studies show that the increasing demand for cheap import substitutes of traditionally women’s crops has helped women make potential gains.114 Although limited research has been carried out on the gender-differential impacts of liberalization on the agricultural labor market, evidence suggests there is a direct link between liberalization and women’s increased participation in non-traditional agricultural exports (NTAEs), including cereals and beans, fish, fruits and vegetable, and cut flowers. In Uganda, for example, 25 percent of women farmers have adopted new food export crops and 48 percent of all women farmers were producing NTAEs.115 In some cases, small farmers, including women, are directly involved in selling the products, thus having the exposure to international markets. Although participation in NTAE industries may increase women’s income, persistent household inequalities may still hinder women from being full beneficiaries of their labor inputs. For example, it was observed that, although 53 percent of the soy growers are women, they are not involved in selling the products and therefore do not 112 USAID SD Publication Series, “Comparative Analysis of Structural Adjustment Programs in Southern Africa,” Technical Paper No 23, June 1996. 113 Baden, S., “Gender Issues in Agricultural Liberalization,” IDS Studies, Report No 41, 1998. 114 Baden, S., Ibid. 115 Fontana, M., S. Joekes, and R. Masika, “Global Trade Expansion and Liberalization: Gender Issues and Impacts,” op. cit. 59 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa have control over their returns.116 Thus, “women producers are less able than men to capture the benefits of increased producer prices and, for this reason, the effect of new incentives on agricultural supply response is dampened.”117 Summary of Gender Considerations under SO13 The revised SO13 strategic paper notes that women, as the majority of small holder farmers, are direct beneficiaries of SO13 activities. Women also are expected to benefit from the small-scale agricultural processing enterprises. Although the strategic paper makes several references as to how women can be primary beneficiaries of the activities under SO13, there is little evidence that targeted efforts have been undertaken to benefit women farmers. Recently, RCSA placed more emphasis on the development and marketing of post-harvest technologies. The Sorghum and Millet Improvement Project (SMIP) introduced a mechanical grain cleaner that removes sand and stones from sorghum before milling. The use of this machine ensures higher quality of grains; it also saves the time of women because they usually spend several hours in the post-harvest cleaning work. Similarly, in Malawi, the Southern Africa Root Crops Research Network (SARNET) introduced processing machines that increased the value of cassava chips sold to industries by 133 percent. Since women are the primary processors, the use of this machine would save them several hours and may increase their productivity and improve the quality of their products. As often happens with the introduction of new time-saving technologies in rural areas, the challenge then would to make these technologies available and affordable to rural women. In addition, the development and marketing of affordable time-saving technologies for food processing and technologies for reducing time spent on household chores have significant impact on enhancing women’s economic benefits in agriculture. Because of the strong role women play in agriculture, as producers and traders in the region, SO13 has great potential and several entry points for enhancing the integration of gender considerations into program assistance. Recommended actions under each Intermediate Result follows. 116 Kigundu, R., “Gender and Diversification” in Report of the Conference on Commodities: Africa and the World Market, Amsterdam, 1996. 117 Haddad, L., L. R., Brown, A., Richter, and L., Smith “The Gender Dimension of Economic Adjustment Policies: potential interactions and evidence to date,” World Development, Vol. 23, No. 6., 1995. 60 Development Alternatives, Inc. Recommendations for Strengthening Gender Integration in SO13 IR4.1—Laws, regulations, and policies enacted that increase trade of agricultural technologies and commodities Under this result, RCSA’s efforts have focused on strengthening the capacity of regional institutions to develop and enforce policies, laws, and regulations. Although the focus has been on promoting trade liberalization in agriculture and reducing non-tariff barriers to trade, a priority area in policy and legislation has been on formulating grades and standards, including sanitary and phytosanitary regulations, intellectual property rights, and regional seed registration. (The intellectual property rights activity was found to be too complex to address and was dropped from RCSA’s portfolio.) Target countries have been selected to implement activities related to regional seed trade and possibly vaccines. Under IR1, SMIP in collaboration with RAPID has organized an effort to define simpler and more appropriate (to industry) measures for setting and measuring sorghum grain standards for regional and global application. SIMP has completed all technical prerequisites for regional release of sorghum and millet. Analysis on the economic uses of grades and standards and identification of important commodities for further work were completed in Mozambique, Malawi, and Zambia. Inventories of the national sanitary and phytosanitary and food safety regulations have been completed in Mauritius, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Inventories in Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, and Swaziland were to be completed by the end of 2001.118 The target is to harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary standards and upgrade them to regional and global market conditions. It is recommended that: ƒ Given that RCSA works to harmonize policy and regulatory frameworks for the liberalization of agricultural trade in the region, it is important to examine how these frameworks impact on women’s small-scale, informal, and low-profit trade in agricultural goods. The imposition of such formal standards, for example, the sanitary and phytosanitary standards, could drive many women traders out of business because they operate in small scale with no formal licenses. Examining the impacts of these regulatory frameworks may lead to the identification of alternative policy frameworks that would provide women options (granting licenses to small businesses at low or no cost) so that the new systems do not exacerbate the poverty condition. ƒ Ensure that women agricultural traders are fully informed about the new regulatory changes. Efforts should be made that information and communication channels use all possible means of both formal and informal means to reach women and men in rural areas. 118 RCSA document, “Semi Annual Results Review: Strategic Object (SO13), October 2001, op. cit. 61 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa ƒ Support associations of women traders through enhancing their capacity to lobby and influence policy on pricing regimes and regulatory frameworks, in gathering and disseminating market information within SADC. ƒ Ensure that associations of women traders (retailers through wholesalers) are consulted and participate fully in the discussions on agricultural trade policy reform. ƒ Support dialogue among all stakeholders on changing legal systems to support women’s equal rights in property ownership such as land and access to critical productive resources such as credit and market information. IR 4.2—Adoption increased for improved agricultural technologies and practices Under this Intermediate Result, activities are geared to enhancing the adoption rate as the percentage of total suitable for growing sorghum, pearl millet, cassava, and sweet potato. The target countries for sorghum and millet are Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe, and for cassava and sweet potato, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zambia. The aim is to promote the development of markets for new technologies that include value-added processing, improved varieties of seed and planting material, crop management, post-harvest handling, storage, commercial processing, standards/grades, and marketing. A recently completed survey showed that the adoption of improved sorghum and pearl millet varieties has exceeded the project targets in Tanzania, accounting for 40 percent for sorghum and 20 percent for pearl millet area planted with these crops. Even though SO13’s Performance Monitoring Plan Amendment of June 2000 indicated that “an attempt will be made to disaggregate the data into male and female farmers,”119 there are no indications that this has been done. In fact, during interviews with IMPACT, it was mentioned that such practice might increase the cost of data collection. Although the adoption rates exceeded expectations for sorghum and sweet potato, the rates for cassava and pearl millet still remain below target. With regard to cassava, a female￾dominated crop, the low adoption rate raises some questions about whether gender issues may have been one factor affecting project results. Available documents do not indicate whether a survey was carried out to document land and other property rights by sex or women’s and men’s participation in community associations of small holder farmers. It also is not known whether the projects are making systematic efforts to ensure women farmers’ participation in training and activities to promote adoption of the new technologies because women and men do not always respond in the same way to adoption messages or even have the same access to them. 119 USAID/RCSA, “Performance Monitoring Plan Amendment, SO13: Expanded Commercial Markets for Agricultural Technologies and Commodities in the SADC Region,” June 2000. 62 Development Alternatives, Inc. Furthermore, studies in Southern Africa show that small-scale farmers rely heavily on informal seed networks, by saving 60-70 percent of seed used on-farm and acquiring 30-40 percent from relatives, neighbors, and other community sources—“less than 10 percent of seed sown by small scale farmers was obtained from the formal sector”.120 Given the informal nature of women’s economic activities in Africa, it is likely that many of women farmers rely in informal seed network. Understanding this and other dynamics may help change the approach to enhance the participation of both male and female small-scale farmers in using commercial seed networks. It is recommended that: ƒ Given that projects under this Intermediate Result work at the community level, there is need to collect information on women’s and men’s access to land, technologies, credit, markets and market information, and the gender division of labor. This information would be useful for project planning, implementation, and monitoring and for ensuring that women are beneficiaries of SO13-supported projects. ƒ It would be relevant for RCSA to examine the economic and socio-cultural factors that might explain the low rates of adoption of cassava and pearl millets and use those findings to develop actions that address gender-related issues. ƒ Continue with the new emphasis on developing and marketing of on-farm post-harvest and post-harvest processing technologies. Ensure their availability and affordability to women and men farmers in rural areas. Explore ways to form farmers’ groups, with the full participation of women to enable them purchase and use these technologies. ƒ Ensure that both men and women participate in training and community-based interventions so they are informed about project initiatives. Initiate dialogue within communities at large about the importance and advantage of women’s participation in all project activities. Schedule meetings and training at times that are convenient to both men and women. Explore social and cultural (for example, violence against women) issues that may negatively affect equal participation of women and men on project activities. ƒ Support existing associations of women farmers, assist the formation of new ones, and enhance their capacities to advocate for themselves. Promote regional dialogue on gender, agricultural trade liberalization, and market integration issues. ƒ Examine the capacity of implementing agencies from a gender perspective and improve their abilities to address gender-based constraints to agricultural development through training incentives and staffing. 120 Conrwell, E., “Governments, Farmers and Seeds in a Changing Africa,” 1996. In Zerbe, N., “Seeds of hope, seeds of despair: towards a political economy of the seed industry in southern Africa,” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp 657-673, 2001. 63 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa IR 4.3—Private sector participation increased in delivery systems for improved agricultural technologies Increasing the supply of improved technologies will be achieved through collaborative efforts involving government institutions, the private sector, NGOs, and farmers. Expansion of markets for improved technologies also will be achieved by working with farmers, millers, and food processors, testing methods to develop new products and by-products and providing more effective delivery systems to disseminate improved varieties. Using participatory methods for the evaluation of production systems would enhance local capacity to solve problems and take action based on compiled information. For example, in Tanzania and Zimbabwe, a participatory field testing of improved crop varieties, methods to improve manure quality, and use of moderate amounts of manure and chemical fertilizer modified tied ridging and legume rotation. However, it is important to note that “participatory” approaches do not automatically guarantee equal participation of women and men unless concerted efforts are applied to have a gender balance.121 It is recommended that: ƒ RCSA promote the use of strategies by their implementing agencies to systematically target women farmers to participate in the testing of new technologies and learn ways of improved farming practices. Explore the use of incentives for both women and men to encourage women farmers’ participation at all levels. ƒ Document best practices where women’s and men’s equal participation in field testing of farming practices have generated better results and disseminate this information in workshops and seminars to share the experience. ƒ Improve skills of extension agents and project planners in the use of gender analysis through training and other capacity-building measures. Recruit more female agricultural extension agents. ƒ The Strategic Objective team should develop tools such as gender checklists to help activity managers properly monitor situations during field visits and provide corrective feed back to implementing agencies. IR4.4—New sustainable agricultural technologies and practices developed This result seeks to increase the impact of improved technologies by developing improved crop and soil management practices and new products and processes that increase demand for technologies and practices. Recently, the research projects of SARRNET, SMIP, and Heartwater were reoriented to put more emphasis on improved management practices. RCSA 121 For more on issues of gender and participatory development, see Guijt, I. and M. Kaul Shah, The Myth of Community: Gender Issues in Participatory Development, 1998. 64 Development Alternatives, Inc. facilitates the dissemination of better information on markets for selected commodities to farmers who are making decisions whether to adopt new management practices. It is recommended that: ƒ RCSA make efforts to ensure equal participation of women and men farmers in technology development and that their different technology needs are considered in product development. ƒ Efforts need to be made to ensure that information on new technologies reaches women, who may have their own preferred channels of communication that differ from men’s. Recommendations for Strengthening Performance Reporting under SO13 SO13 Performance Monitoring Plan of 1999 indicates that an attempt will be made to disaggregate the data collected under IR4 adoption rates of improved crop management practices by male and female farmers.122 Similarly, estimating time saved by women as the result of technologies adopted under was planned. Further information on how far this has been materialized was not available. ƒ Quantity of grain and root crop sold to the commercial market: This indicator, according to the definition in the Performance Monitoring Plan, measures the amount of sorghum and millet, cassava, and sweet potato that industries and urban markets buy from both large- and small-scale farmers for use in production of value-added products disaggregated by crop. Data will be collected by administering questionnaires in selected industries. Sex-disaggregated data can be collected to determine the female-male ratio of beneficiaries of the projects at the levels of production and sales and as buyers. ƒ Percent of area planted with improved varieties to the total crop area: This indicator measures the adoption rate of improved varieties of the four selected crops as percentage of total in four targeted countries. It would be appropriate to collect information on gender-differentiated land use rights as well as the rate of female-headed households in the project areas as baseline data. Sex-disaggregated data should be collected in terms of adoption and yield per producer (male, female) to monitor the result. Recommendations for Strengthening SO13 Cross-Sectoral Linkages with Other Strategic Objectives Cross-sectoral synergy between SO13 and SO2 are in progress as the two Strategic Objective teams work on the sanitary and phytosanitary activities. There is need for these Strategic Objectives to examine the gender elements within these activities and identify entry points for systematic integration of gender. 122 RCSA, “Performance Monitoring Plan (PMP), SO13,” June 2000, page 17. 65 Chapter Four—Gender Assessment of USAID’s Regional Center for Southern Africa The alarming increase HIV/AIDS in Africa has enormous implications for agricultural production in the region. RCSA is considering addressing HIV/AIDS through a cross￾sectoral approach. SO13 can have cross-sectoral linkages with other Strategic Objectives in the prevention of the epidemic in rural areas and in the examination of how gender inequalities continue to influence prevention, care, treatment, and mitigation efforts. ƒ SO13 is well positioned to address issues of HIV/AIDS within the rural communities in which it works. Examining the gender elements of the disease and its social and economic implications for agricultural production is a key element to containing the problem. In a positive direction, RCSA should explore how agricultural knowledge, skills, and technologies can mitigate the impact of the epidemic on households, especially those headed by women (widows, grandmothers, never married) and orphans. ƒ RCSA should link up with NGOs that work on gender and HIV/AIDS at the regional level and promote advocacy in raising awareness among decision makers on the threat of the disease to agricultural development. 67 Chapter Five—Strengthening USAID/RCSA’s Institutional Capacity for Systematic Gender Integration in Program Portfolios CHAPTER FIVE STRENGTHENING USAID/RCSA’S INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY FOR SYSTEMATIC GENDER INTEGRATION IN PROGRAM PORTFOLIOS The following recommendations are made to strengthen gender integration in RCSA operations and projects. Key to gender integration is building the institutional capacity to use gender approaches, gender analysis, and other strategies to ensure results. Annex B includes draft points for a Mission Order in gender that could guide this process of gender integration. ƒ Most Missions have found that it is useful to have a focal point to drive the process of gender integration until there is a critical mass of knowledge and skills in the Mission and the procedures and policies to sustain the process over time. Based on that experience, RCSA should establish a Gender Committee comprising representatives of all Strategic Objective offices, Contracting Office, Supervisory Program Office, Legal Office, and other relevant units. Terms of Reference need to be developed for the Gender Committee. The role of the Gender Coordinator needs to be clearly framed. ƒ Identify a key staff member who would be responsible for gender issues within each Strategic Objective team and other units and would represent the team and/or unit in the Gender Committee. ƒ The Gender Coordinator should have a job description with adequate time formally allocated for this portion of her work. ƒ Because much of RCSA’s work focuses on trade liberalization and market integration activities (SO2 and SO13) and given that these Strategic Operate in a complex environment, there is need to strengthen these teams’ capacities to address gender issues in their programs. RCSA should explore ways to recruit an Investing in Women in Development (IWID) Fellow with a strong trade and gender background. ƒ Initiate gender training, workshops, and seminars and create other initiatives to enhance staff’s knowledge and capacity to adequately integrated gender issues within their respective program portfolios (Annex D). 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Zerbe, N. ., “Seeds of hope, seeds of despair: towards a political economy of the seed industry in southern Africa,” Third World Quarterly, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 657-673, 2001. A-1 ANNEX A SCOPE OF WORK A-2 A-3 GENDER ASSESSMENT AND TRAINING FOR THE REGIONAL CENTER FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA (RCSA) NOVEMBER 6, 2001 BACKGROUND The Regional Center for Southern Africa (RCSA), based in Gaborone, Botswana, was established in 1994 under the Initiative for Southern Africa (ISA). The ISA is USAID’s regional approach to helping the 11 countries in the Southern African region (Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe) achieve equitable, sustainable economic growth and successful democracies. The ISA complements bilateral programs in the region with programs that address regional development constraints, particularly in the areas of infrastructure, small- and medium-scale business development, civic society and democratic governance, and agriculture and natural resource management. Overall, the program supports three agency strategic goals, including building democracy, encouraging economic growth, and protecting the environment. The goal of the RCSA’s Strategic Plan (1997-2003) is to promote “equitable sustainable economic growth in a democratic Southern Africa,” which complements and supports the regional integration and economic development goals of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The RCSA’s regional strategy, with SOs in democracy, market integration, natural resources and agriculture, also complements the U.S. Mission Performance Plan’s (MPP) regional goals of economic development, open markets, democracy and environment. The achievement of the RCSA Strategy goal will contribute to a larger, more stable and democratic trading partner for the United States and eventually reduce the need for economic assistance to the region. Strategic Objectives ƒ RCSA SO: 690-001-01: Increased Regional Capacity to Influence Democratic performance. ƒ RCSA SO: 690-002-01: A More Integrated Regional Market. ƒ RCSA SO: 690-012-01: Increased Regional Cooperation in the Management of Shared Natural Resources. ƒ RCSA SO: 690-013-01: Expanded Commercial Markets for Agricultural Technologies and Commodities in the SADC. A-4 Special Objectives: ƒ RCSA SpO: 690-005-01: Create Capacity for More Informed Regional Decision Making. ƒ RCSA SpO: 690-011-01: Broadened U.S.—SADC Cooperation. PURPOSE OF WORK The purpose of this Scope of Work is to obtain the services of a team of two consultants. The team shall carry out an assessment of the existing regional program portfolio, outlining the main areas where gender issues are of greatest essence, and shall formulate detailed recommendations on how gender considerations can be integrated more systematically into RCSA’s current and future strategic activities. The work will be carried out in two phases and is described below. TASKS The primary tasks (by phase) of the team are to: 1. Carry out a Gender Assessment and, based on this, design a Gender Action Plan (Phase 1). ƒ Assess the RCSA’s present strategic framework, results framework, and the regional program portfolio and assess potential gender issues in a future portfolio and/or strategic framework. ƒ Produce an assessment of possible entry-points for the incorporation of gender considerations into ongoing activities and potential new programs. The assessment is to be organized and shaped by: ─ RCSA’s framework ─ AFR’s approach to mainstreaming gender ─ Newly revised Agency Strategic Plan (Gender as Crosscutting Theme) ƒ Based on this assessment, design a Gender Action Plan that lays out the steps for mainstreaming gender in Regional Center policies and activities. This should address both the operationalizing of gender from the perspective of technical offices and divisions, as well as of the overall Regional Center management, based on the above analysis above, for a detailed USAID/RCSA Gender Action Plan to address fully the requirements of Agency Directives. A-5 It should include, but not be limited to, the following elements: ─ The gender assessment described above. ─ Technical advice on the RCSA’s Strategic and Results Framework to reflect the key role of gender considerations in the achievement of USAID goals. ─ Under each strategic objective, outline of the key role of gender in development. ─ Recommendations on how to develop gender indicators of program impact and approaches for the collection and analysis of sex disaggregated data. 2. Produce draft points for RCSA to mainstream gender issues (Phases 1 and 2). The points should reflect: ƒ Procurement issues, including the Agency ADS guidelines, standard provisions addressing gender to be included in RFPs, RFAs, etc., and outline of steps for evaluating gender components of proposals. ƒ Gender structure within the RCSA to address operational and policy goals. ƒ SO Teams ƒ Gender Committee including an outline of the Committee’s responsibilities. 3. Provide gender briefings for USAID/RCSA staff and their partners (Phase 2). ƒ Facilitate 2-3 briefing sessions for RCSA staff and their implementing partners. Each session will be from 45-60 minutes. ƒ Topics covered will include the importance of integrating gender and the background to the Agency (ADS) guidelines on gender integration. ƒ Participants will be all the activity managers of USAID/RCSA, SO team leaders, the program staff, and major the implementing partners. 4. Provide a two-day staff training to USAID/RCSA on Gender and Development approaches and gender mainstreaming (Phase 2). Methodology 1. Prior to departure for Botswana, the team of consultants shall review documents from the RCSA, G/WID, WIDTECH, and, as appropriate, Africa Bureau’s Office of Development Planning (AFR/DP). These documents will include, but not be limited to: RCSA policy and planning documents, such as the current Strategic Plan and R4s; background information on gender issues in the RCSA, and other in-country data; gender assessments and gender action plans from other countries or regions which can be used as models by the team; and USAID/M/OP procurement guidelines. A-6 2. In carrying out the data collection phase of the work, the team shall interview the following and collect related information: ƒ Members of RCSA’s SO Teams and the Program Office. ƒ A sample of USAID implementing agencies as identified by RCSA in advance (in order to facilitate appointments) and approved by RCSA. ƒ A small sample of USAID-funded NGOs, as identified by RCSA in advance (in order to facilitate appointments) and approved by RCSA. ƒ Major donors or other international organizations that have important gender programs in Southern Africa, as identified by RCSA in advance (in order to facilitate appointments) and approved by RCSA. 3. All work shall use the gender approach of the newly revised Strategic Plan. Deliverables 1. Gender Assessment & Action Plan: The Gender Assessment and Action Plan will use the data from interviews and secondary sources to assess the appropriate technical areas for gender emphasis and make recommendations for future actions for gender integration, described above as the first task. The document will also be the basis for further technical assistance, provided by USAID/Washington. ƒ A preliminary draft shall be submitted to RCSA upon completion of fieldwork, with an electronic copies forwarded to RCSA, G/WID, AFR/DP and WIDTECH. The recipients will provide written comments to the Consultant Team Leader electronically within 5 working days of receipt. ƒ A revised draft Gender Assessment & Action Plan, incorporating RCSA, G/WID, AFR/DP, and WIDTECH comments shall be submitted to RCSA, G/WID, AFR/DP and WIDTECH, not later than 5 working days after receiving the above comments. RCSA, G/WID, AFR/DP, and WIDTECH shall provide any additional written comments electronically within 5 working days of receipt of the revised draft. ƒ The Final Gender Assessment & Action Plan will be submitted within 10 working days after receiving comments on the revised draft. 2. Mission Order: Draft points for a Mission Order that mainstreams gender issues shall be submitted to the RCSA, G/WID, AFR/DP, and WIDTECH, for consideration and comments not later then two weeks after the completion of the field work. 3. Gender Briefings: Facilitate 2 to 3 sessions or meetings for RCSA staff and their implementing partners. Each session will be from 45-60 minutes. Topics covered will A-7 include why integrating gender will lead to more effective results and as well as Agency (ADS) procurement guidelines. 4. Mission Staff Training: The consultants will design and conduct a 2-day training program for USAID/RCSA staff on Gender and Development (GAD) approaches and gender mainstreaming. The objective is to increase the Mission’s capacity to mainstream gender into its development activities. Estimated Level of Effort It is anticipated that the services of the two consultants will be required for up to 32 days in Phase I. Accordingly, each consultant will have up to 3 days for preparation, 4 days for travel, 5 days in country, and 4 days at home to complete the draft and final documents. For Phase II, a team of two consultants is required for up to 38 days total (for both consultants). Each consultant will have up to 6 days for preparations, 4 days for travel, 5 days in country , and 4 days for reporting writing (a total of 19 days). The consultants will meet in Washington, D.C., to do joint planning of the training with WIDTECH before their departure to the field. A six-day workweek will be authorized overseas, if necessary. Total LOE is up to 70 days for the two phases, including travel. Performance Period It is anticipated that Phase1 of this assignment will begin on or about January 14, 2002 and will be completed by March 15, 2002, by which time Task 1 (above) will be accomplished. Phase 2 will begin on or about June 10, 2002 and will be completed by July 31, 2002, by which time Tasks 2-4 (above) will be accomplished. Reporting Requirements The consultants will work closely with the USAID/RCSA WID Officer who will provide oversight while in country. Entry and exit meetings of the consultants with the Regional Director or his representative will be organized. WIDTECH will provide overall direction and technical support. All TA deliverables will be provided for comment to RCSA, G/WID, AFR/DP, and WIDTECH. A-8 B-1 ANNEX B PERSONS CONTACTED B-2 B-3 PERSONS CONTACTED 1. USAID RCSA Patrick Fleuret Mission Director Program Supervisory Office S.K Reddy Program Officer Valencia Mvisivi Senior Advisor and Gender Coordinator Program Development Office Godwin M. Punungwe RAPID Activity Manager SO1 Ozias Tungwarara Senior Democracy and Governance Advisor SO2 Randall G. Peterson Chief Regional Market Integration Office Vincent Sandamuka Project Manager Sanley D. Mupanomunda Finance and Investment Manager Ita Mannathoko Economic Policy Advisor Cecilia M. Khupe Development Assistant SO12 Deborah E. Kahatano TBNRM Activity Manager 2. Strengthening Regional Economies Through Nongovernmental Organizations (STRENGTH) L. James Bud Eaton Chief of Party 3. Regional Activity to Promote Integration Through Dialogue and Policy Implementation (RAPID) Nancy Jeff Contracts Manager Dorothy Tembo Trade Economist Hellen Kembo Regional Integration Advisor—Customs activity Stella Mushiri Economist 4. IMPACT Ita Mannathoko Economic Policy Advisor- also staff of IMPACT B-4 5. USAID AFRICA Bureau Ruth Buckley 6. SADC Athaliah Molokomme (Dr.) Senior Program Officer—Gender Unit Christine Warioba Program Officer—Gender Unit Robert Kirk Senior Trade Policy Advisor at SADC 7. UNDP Comfort Tetteh Deputy Director C-1 ANNEX C DRAFT POINTS FOR A MISSION ORDER ON GENDER C-2 C-3 DRAFT POINTS FOR A MISSION ORDER ON GENDER PURPOSE The purpose of this Mission Order is to establish Mission policy on the integration of gender into all relevant Mission programs and activities, and to provide guidance for implementing the Mission’s gender strategy. POLICY Consistent with Agency policy and provisions on gender analysis and integration contained in Series 200 and 300 of the Automated Directives System (ADS) 123 and other USAID guidance on gender issues, the Mission, through this Mission Order, clarifies and systematizes its policy on gender, and establishes procedures and mechanisms to ensure effective integration of gender issues throughout its programs. This policy is guided by USAID’s conceptual framework for mainstreaming gender, as summarized below: ƒ Including or addressing gender issues results in more effective and efficient development. ƒ Gender is not another word for women; rather it means assessing the issues for men, as well as women, as they relate to proposed programs and projects. ƒ Mainstreaming gender means identifying and analyzing potential gender differences and integrating them throughout the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of programs and projects. Terms used in this Mission Order are defined as follows: ƒ Gender refers to “the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female.”124 ƒ Gender integration means “taking account of both the differences and the inequalities between men and women in program planning, implementing, and assessing.”125 123 ADS 200 and 300, Available at the website: www.usaid.gov/pubs/ads. 124 DAC Guidelines for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Development Co-operation, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, 1998. 125 A Guide to Gender Integration and Analysis: Annex to ADS 200 Series. The paper is currently being drafted and will be available in the future on the website: http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/ads/200/ppcrefindx2.htm C-4 ƒ Gender Analysis is the “methodology applied to development problems to identify and understand the dimensions and relevance of gender issues and gender-based constraints, and to undertake measures to ensure gender mainstreaming.” 126 Gender analysis should be included in any other analysis, evaluation or assessment being conducted and should include looking at the differences between men’s and women’s roles, rights, opportunities and constraints. Gender is a priority area of concern and should be addressed in a cross-cutting manner in all strategic and special objectives encompassed by USAID/RCSA programs, and included in all relevant program and activity design, procurement and reporting documents, in accordance with the guidelines in the section on procedures, below. Further, gender issues should be addressed in a coordinated manner to ensure maximum synergy and impact in all program areas. Measures to facilitate coordination are outlined below in the section on coordination. Integrating gender concerns into the Mission’s program is the responsibility of all USAID/RCSA employees. Neither the Mission gender coordinator nor the members of the gender committee, referred to in the section on coordination, bear the sole responsibility for ensuring that gender integration takes place. The principal responsibility lies with the SO/SPO teams and with each member of the staff as part of his or her duties. PROCEDURES This section outlines the procedures to be followed in integrating attention to gender in program activities and documentation. Strategic Plans: Gender should be identified as a cross-cutting issue, and reducing gender disparities should be indicated as a strategic priority in all program areas in which gender disparities are likely to adversely affect development results. All analysis conducted for development of the strategic plan should incorporate gender analysis. Based on such analysis, the strategic plan narrative should specifically note the impact of gender disparities on development in Southern Africa, the implications of gender-related issues for achieving the results outlined in the Results Framework, and the strategies and illustrative activities planned to address gender-related issues. These should be discussed as an integral part of the narrative for each strategic or special objective, rather than in a separate section on gender. The Results Framework should incorporate gender in SO and IR statements when gender is a key variable in achieving the results sought; appropriate gender-disaggregated or gender-sensitive performance indicators should be included. 126 Ibid. C-5 The gender coordinator and committee members may be called on for assistance in drafting the strategic plan, but each SO/SPO team is responsible for gender integration in its respective section of the strategy. Similarly, the program office is responsible for overall gender integration in the strategic plan. The gender committee, with the assistance of the gender coordinator, should review the strategic plan prior to finalization, to ensure that gender issues are adequately identified, analyzed and incorporated in the strategy. Any revisions needed should be carried out by the SO/SPO teams and/or program office. R4s: Gender-differentiated results and progress in eliminating gender disparities should be reported in the R4 in terms of their impact on or contribution to achievement of intermediate results and SOs/SPOs. Measures taken to reduce gender disparities, and the results of those efforts, should be specifically reported, to highlight lessons learned and managing for results. In reporting on results where gender is an important factor, gender￾disaggregated and/or gender-sensitive indicators should be reported in the R4. Significant results shown by gender sensitive indicators should be discussed in the narrative, together with the probable reasons for any unexpected results. Success stories relevant to both gender and achievement of results should be included whenever possible. Each SO/SPO team is responsible for including gender-sensitive indicators and narrative in the R4, and the program office has the final responsibility for the document. The gender committee is responsible for reviewing all sections of the R4 and suggesting any needed revisions to the SO/SPO team and/or the program office. Activity Identification and Design: During activity identification and design processes, it must be determined whether gender is relevant and in what ways, through gender analysis. In simplified form, the following questions should be answered: ƒ Who needs to be reached for action or change to occur? (by sex and other relevant variables). ƒ Why, or so what? What difference would it make if these groups participate or not? What are the implications for achieving objectives? ƒ How can these groups be reached? What are the motivations or important interests of the group? What constraints exist and what are the best means to overcome constraints? What are the best means of communication or outreach? ƒ How will we know? What information is needed to determine who participates and changes that occur as a result? ƒ What happened? Will we know if the expected results are being achieved? If the results are not achieved, can we find out why? Is there sufficient flexibility in the design to allow changes to improve results? C-6 If gender is determined by the SO/SPO or Results Package team not to be a relevant factor, the team must document that decision, and the reasons for it, in accordance with ADS requirements (see sections 303.5.5b and E303.5.5b4). All activity identification documents should highlight relevant gender issues, the availability of gender-disaggregated information, and needs for additional information. Activity design documents should take these issues into account and set forth and analyze the necessary information to demonstrate the relevance and importance of gender issues to the activity’s ability to achieve the desired results. Addressing relevant and important gender issues and disparities must be an integral part of the activity design, and the necessary human skills, material and financial resources, and time needed to address gender issues must be provided for in the design. The design and Performance Monitoring Plan must also include indicators and benchmarks to monitor progress, taking gender into account. The indicators selected should reflect dimensions important to achievement of the activity’s objectives. The gender committee member(s) from the SO/SPO responsible for the activity should be involved in development of activity designs, assisted as needed by the gender coordinator and other members of the gender committee, and/or by external technical assistance. The gender committee should review activity identification and design documents for adequate attention to gender, and indicate any revisions needed, prior to final approval. Proposal Solicitation and Selection: RFPs, RFAs and similar documents soliciting proposals for the implementation of activities should require attention to gender in all activities for which gender is a relevant factor. If gender has been determined not to be relevant, the document should state so. The areas or aspects of the activity in which gender is relevant should be clearly indicated, and the proposal should be required to specifically show how gender issues will be addressed; how results are determined taking gender into account; and what resources will be provided to do this. Proposal selection criteria should include the ability to address gender issues, for all proposals for which gender is relevant. The appropriateness of the proposed design, activities, staff and budget should be assessed with regard to gender integration, for both solicited and unsolicited proposals. Assessments and Evaluations: All sector and activity assessments and evaluations for which gender is a relevant factor should assess the extent to which both sexes participate and benefit, and the degree to which the project design, with or without modifications, contributed to reducing gender disparities and improving the situation of disadvantaged girls/women and/or boys/men. Lessons learned with regard to gender should be highlighted. Scopes of Work for assessments and evaluations should specifically require attention to gender and ensure that gender expertise is included on the assessment/evaluation team, whenever gender is a relevant factor. Ability to address gender issues should be a selection criterion in selecting assessment/evaluation teams. C-7 COORDINATION Gender Committee: A Gender Committee should be established within RCSA to oversee the integration of gender into Mission programs and activities, as well as to promote synergy. Members should represent all SOs/SPOs and major Mission activities, and should have decision-making authority. It is recommended that SO/SPO team leaders serve on the committee. The committee could be chaired by the Program Officer. The gender coordinator should be a member of the committee, and could serve as coordinator for the committee. Membership should be drawn from staff, and both women and men, with as wide and diverse a range of technical and sectoral expertise as possible. Members should be allowed adequate time and the necessary resources to carry out their responsibilities. The gender committee should meet quarterly, or as needed to review program and activity documentation. The role of this committee is to oversee implementation of the Mission’s gender strategy, and the provisions outlined in this Mission Order, across the entire USAID/RCSA program, as well as to promote synergies throughout all areas of the program, including synergies with regard to gender. Specific functions of the committee (with regard to gender) include: ƒ Reviewing strategic plans, results frameworks and R4s (including indicators) for attention to gender, and recommending needed revisions. The revisions suggested by the committee shall be made by the respective SO/SPO team, unless convincing reasons are set forth for not making such changes. The Mission should decide (in advance) who will make the final determination, in cases of difference of opinion. ƒ Reviewing activity identification and design documents for attention to gender, under the same conditions as above. ƒ Reviewing proposal solicitation documents and proposals for attention to gender. ƒ Reviewing Scopes of Work for assessments and evaluations, as well as drafts of completed assessments and evaluations, for attention to gender. ƒ Serving as a resource to assist SO/SPO teams in conceptualizing gender issues and drafting the above documents. ƒ Ensuring that gender-related interventions across activities and/or sectors are coordinated, and that as much synergy as possible is achieved in order to maximize impact. ƒ Visiting major gender-related field activities periodically to monitor progress, including activities through out the region. D-1 ANNEX D REPORT OF WIDTECH GENDER TRAINING FOR RCSA D-2 D-3 REPORT OF WIDTECH GENDER TRAINING FOR RCSA DR. SANDRA L. RUSSO JUNE 25-26, 2002 The training as originally commissioned and planned for was revised considerably at the request of the Program Planning and Development Office (PPDO). The PPDO asked that the training focus more on strategic planning and less on the current portfolio of activities. Also, because of the new strategic planning activities and the search for new strategic objectives, there is an emphasis on cross-sectoral work that builds on current activities and cuts across the current specific sector approach. Teams and work groups were just being formed the week of the training, with staff focusing on where they would be working and with whom they would be working. Thus, the original training needs assessment and rationale for types of training needed had to be abandoned for the most part. On a very positive note, the Mission Director (MD), Patrick Fleuret, is exceedingly supportive of mainstreaming gender in RCSA’s portfolio of activities. He spoke out very strongly during the first day of the training on why he believes in gender issues. He stressed to the Mission staff that he wants to see gender cut across all of their activities. PPDO is also on board regarding mainstreaming gender as are a number of individuals. Since the establishment of RCSA, the Mission has operated with the attitude that the regional work they do is “gender neutral,” a stance that was surprisingly supported by Washington. The MD will no longer allow that stance to persist and instead wants to include gender (and HIV/AIDS, among other issues) as crosscutting all activities undertaken. At the MD’s direction, contract officers and legal advisors were included in the training. This meant that the level of information and detail be somewhat scaled down to accommodate those with no programmatic/development assistance gender expertise. However, their participation in the training was of considerable assistance as the participants grappled with what they could or could not ask contractors/grantees to do, what RCSA staff could do, and what is in their manageable interests in terms of what level to start the contracting process. Due to the change in the type of training requested, there was no time to conduct another needs assessment. Instead, participants were asked at the beginning of the session what they wanted to learn from the training. Their answers were elicited orally and written on flipcharts that remained in the room throughout the training and that were consulted at the end of the training. Answers included: understanding what gender means and defining it in a meaningful way, learning the difference between women in development (WID) and gender and development (GAD), learning how to mainstream gender into programs, how does gender fit into regional, macro-level activities, how to use gender in evaluation of contractor/recipient performance, how to develop Agency documents, and why gender is important to development. Other responses that dealt more with management issues at D-4 RCSA included: how to work at RCSA while thinking about gender and acting accordingly, how to get RCSA to understand that gender is not the same as women, and how to add considerations of gender into an already heavy workload. The training schedule is attached, as revised during the training itself. There were 23 participants, 12 women, and 11 men. Nine were in the training all the time, an additional ten were there most of the time, two had little interest, and two had competing job demands that kept pulling them out. Participants seemed to get the most benefit out of the small group work and approached each task with enthusiasm. The PowerPoint presentation prepared by WIDTECH was used on the first morning to quickly review USAID’s commitment to mainstreaming gender and the ADS guidelines. The video, Law and Justice, focusing on South Africa, was shown the morning of the second day as a way to pull together what they had been exposed to in the first day’s training. It elicited a good discussion. Four different small group activities were scheduled, two per day. These are attached. These were, of necessity, kept brief. The first small group activity was done in plenary, wherein participants read out loud each mini-case and were asked to respond to questions about gender issues that were included in each mini-case. Immediately after that, the participants were divided into analysis teams (corresponding to the newly developed teams for the strategic plan) to discuss the “big picture” of their new strategic plan. They were asked to address gender issues that might affect new strategies, the scale, types of activities that might be undertaken, to give one or two examples and to suggest gender implications. Some of their responses were: ƒ Population, Health and Nutrition (PHN): distribute condoms, look at cross-sectoral possibilities (e.g., food security) and education. The big question: “What is in RCSA’s manageable interests?” ƒ Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance (DCHA): consolidate DG efforts, look at mitigation and building responsive systems. Examples included increasing the number of women in the political process, political party training (both DG); looking at the victims of breakdown of governments (famine, political, climatic crises), facilitating legitimate electoral frameworks (conflict); and access to relief assistance including addressing issues of corruption and the politicized nature of relief (HA). ƒ Economic Growth, Agriculture and Trade (EGAT): food standards and food safety including impacts on employment and income of women; community tourism in terms of services and products. ƒ Global Development Alliance (GDA): chose to focus on one activity—building capacity of tax officials to improve tax regimes. Who would be the public and private sector partners was discussed as length as were the multiple indicators. The impact would be the equalization of tax treatment and disaggregated data. D-5 ƒ Mandatory Analysis: chose to focus on conflict/vulnerability analysis in Zimbabwe as an example—displaced children, xenophobia in neighboring countries, health compromised, food insecurity, land issue, disrupted education, militarization, trade disruption, and corruption—all of which impact women and men. This group also added that other groups need to consider: training, capacity building, public institutions, policy and legal frameworks, and improved technologies for their impacts on women. By and large, all of the groups continued to equate women and gender issues, often with just cause but also probably because they haven’t begun to be able to separate these issues. On the second day, after viewing and discussing the video, we briefly reviewed the Automated Directives Systems (ADS) guidelines again, looking specifically at gender integration in two RCSA documents provided by Neil Price (Contracts office). Valencia Msibi also provided materials for developing Requests for Proposals (RFP), scopes of work (SOW), and other Agency documents from a WIDTECH training held in Washington, DC in October 1999 that were very useful. Five randomly selected groups then met to develop sample pieces of Agency documents, including a paragraph for a Request for Application (RFA) and RFP (Section C or L), one or two key qualifications for a senior team member (Section M), identification of at least one gender indicator (Section L, M or the Performance Monitoring Plan) and one result (Section M). The plenary discussion focused on what could reasonably be expected of team members, e.g., chief of party vs. gender specialists and what could RCSA do, as a regional office, in terms of activities and indicators to be sure that gender is integrated into projects. The final small group work asked the participants to look at the Phase I Gender Assessment and Plan of Action’s recommendations for cross-sectoral work, to determine if these recommendations made sense in light of changes in RCSA’s focus, and what, if anything, could they reasonably ask current contractors and grantees to do vis-a-vis gathering information that would help with the strategic planning process. Only four groups were formed this time around. The activity made them recognize what RCSA has not been including in PMPs and results reporting, especially given that RCSA had taken a gender neutral stance in its work up to present. The need for baseline data became very apparent and the questions about where to find that data were many. Does it exist, who has it, does RCSA have to collect it, are there NGOs or higher education institutions that are already collecting this data in the region, and is it possible to develop specific “gender litmus tests” for RCSA to use in its projects? It also became apparent that capacity building of some sort would have to be included in many future activities. RCSA needs to begin to identify partners and figure out appropriate interventions. They all felt that many of their activities could be cross-sectoral in the future but that time and staff constraints, and the conclusion of many contracts and grants in the near future would prevent them from being very proactive. D-6 After the last small group work, the trainer and RCSA staff talked about what the staff could reasonably expect to accomplish and what could they ask their partners to do. They also discussed whether or not having a gender office or gender committee would be helpful. They did not want to have yet another committee established and felt that the newly constructed Mandatory Analysis team that focuses on gender, conflict vulnerability, and environment, would be able to perform this function for now. The training closed by reviewing the needs assessment answers on the flipcharts and by having the participants complete an evaluation form. The participants preferred the second day of training to the first, which summarized the main points about gender and development, as they were able to work on more specific kinds of activities related to their work. The participants were evenly divided as to whether the amount of time spent on training was just right or not enough—no one responded that it was too much. All wanted more details, especially materials specific to USAID. More training was requested in: evaluation (3), indicators (5), analysis (8), and strategic planning (3). A couple of comments were added that the training seemed rushed yet that their workload prevented them from having a longer training at this time. Following the training, a series of consultative meetings were held with various offices, staff, and working groups (for the strategic planning process). These included: ƒ The Mission Director: Pat Fleuret ƒ The Regional Legal Advisors: Michelle Godette and Kim Robinson ƒ The Mandatory Analysis Working Group (e.g., environment, conflict vulnerability and gender): Valencia Msibi, Morse Nanchengwa, Deborah Kahatano ƒ PPDO: Anthony Vodraska, Marcia Musisi-Nkambwe, Valencia Msibi The MD and staff saw the need for more training in different areas, plus more information and access to such information. The Program Officers, in particular, will need more training on how to integrate gender into PMP, RFP/RFA, SOW, and indicators as the current training barely touched the surface on these topics. A Results Framework training to be held in November is another opportunity to include additional gender training, especially in terms of analysis and indicators. Staff talked about next opportunities in the strategic planning process that presented entry points for gender integration. For example, after RCSA’s concept paper is approved in Washington, they will intensify their focus to developing the specifics of their strategic plan, including how to address gender issues in that plan. The Contracts Officers and the Legal Advisors also want to develop a gender “litmus test” or checklist they can use to be sure that all contracts and documents coming from RCSA meet the ADS guidelines for gender integration. Staff agreed that gender mainstreaming will be the responsibility of all but they also want to have benchmarks (e.g., at program level, contract level and legal level) to be sure they are doing it correctly. Concerns were expressed on how to contract such work since WIDTECH, the current technical assistance contract of Economic Growth, Agriculture and Trade/Office of Women in Development (EGAT/WID) is nearing its completion date (2 September 2002). D-7 To summarize the two-day training, there was simply not enough time to fully cover the material that needed to be covered especially given the repeated admonitions to cut the number of hours. The timing of the training was not the best, even though RCSA had insisted that it occur then. Staff had been through a weeklong strategic planning training just the week before and felt they were behind in their work and couldn’t spend too much time in the gender training. This marginalization, however, was not because the topic was gender but reflected the “meeting fatigue” of the staff overall. The acceptance and interest in learning was, for the most part, genuine. Of those few who appeared disinterested, the probable cause was that the level of training did not meet their very specific sectoral and programmatic requirements. Recommendations: 1. Have a gender expert review the concept paper (suggested by PPDO). Need to identify mechanisms to access such expertise. (September 2002)127 2. After the concept paper is submitted and accepted, have several more specific gender training sessions for the various teams and working groups (suggested by PPDO). A gender trainer could spend up to six weeks at RCSA conducting various trainings and individual team consultancies. Mission might avail itself of other USAID trainings that have gender components (e.g., annual DG officers training) (January—May 2003) 3. Hold specific brainstorming sessions to develop consensus on the regional gender issues as well as the bilateral missions’ issues (suggested by Mandatory Analysis team). (ASAP) 4. Help the Contracts Office and the Regional Legal Advisors develop a checklist for reviewing documents (requested by RLAs and Contracting Officers). Find out if such already exist in Washington (e.g., EGAT/WID or AFR). This could be done collaboratively, in a training session, so that it is developed with these staff members and specific for their needs. (ASAP) 5. If the Mandatory Analyses Team (Valencia Msibi, Morse Nanchengwa, and Deborah Kahatano) is to take an effective leading role in moving the Mission forward in gender integration, team members must receive specialized gender training and be considered for any training of trainers program that might be available, e.g., Makerere University in Uganda (proposed by the team). This team will, in the interim, be responsible for reviewing all strategic planning efforts for gender, environment and conflict vulnerability issues. (ASAP) 6. A list of gender resources that RCSA can access is needed (requested by participants on evaluation form). Websites were provided by trainer to the Mandatory Analysis team. EGAT/WID is another source of such information. (ASAP) 7. A list of available Indefinite Quantity Contracts (IQC) and technical assistance mechanisms that RCSA can use to hire gender consultants is needed (requested by 127 Expertise exists in the region, e.g., in the SADC, gender institutes, and universities, as well as through USAID contractors and staff in the Africa Bureau, EGAT/WID and some of the Global pillars. D-8 many of the program officers). RCSA Contracts Office and EGAT/WID assistance required. (ASAP) 8. Identify gender expertise in the region as well as from the U.S (requested by the Mandatory Analysis team). See footnote below. 9. In the long-term, make gender mainstreaming the responsibility of everyone in RCSA (from the participants and Mandatory Analysis team).128 This should be revisited when the strategic plan is completed. 10. Hold any future intensive gender training off-site (proposed by the trainer). This would reduce participants leaving the training as often as they did in the current training to see to other work details. 128 Until there is a critical mass of gender expertise in the Mission and procedures and operational guidelines for ensuring gender integration, the Mission needs a plan for moving toward the realization of this long-term goal. Moreover, adequate human and financial resources need to be allocated by the Mission to ensure the plan is implemented to its fullest potential. D-9 Attachment 1: Training Plan General Objectives: 1. Understand the concept of gender and development and the importance of taking gender issues into consideration in policy development and programming. 2. Understand and be able to implement USAID’s gender integration policy and framework through learning the “how to” available from ADS annexes. 3. Understand and practice gender analysis tools important to mandatory technical analyses. 4. Develop skills to evaluate and assess various program design documents, instruments, and reports to ensure gender sensitive programming is occurring, including SOW and RFPs. Specific Objective: Gender based constraints/issues identified and concepts developed to integrate gender into RSCA current strategic planning exercises. Trainer: Sandra L. Russo Date Time Activities Areas to be covered Comments June 25 9:00 Opening—Mission Representative Introductions Name, position, one thing you would like to learn from the workshop. Assessment of participants’ level of experience with gender Participants will rate their level of knowledge of gender integration 9:30 Explain workshop objectives, schedule, and methodology Presentation and questions and answers of clarification/expectations 9:45 Introduction to Gender and Development Definition of gender—where it came from, how the approach is different from WID, gender roles, gender relations, gender based discriminations—access to resources, decision making, and why/how gender affects development practice. Q&A 10 minutes after presentation 10:45 Break 11:00 USAID policy and institutional frameworks for integrating gender USAID commitment to mainstreaming gender. Briefly introduce USAID policy on gender and ADS Guidelines, and the need for gender analysis (what it involves) Q&A 10-15 minutes at the end; PowerPoint presentation 12:30 Lunch 1:30 Understanding gender issues within sectoral and regional context Gender analysis, tools, frameworks—learning how to determine gender impacts Interactive presentation —mini-cases (1) 2:30 Break 2:45 Group work Break into analysis teams to begin discussing gender issues that might affect RCSA’s new strategies. Discuss key issues that the new strategy would address. Discuss where gender can be incorporated. Small group work (2) 3:30 Plenary Discuss results of small group work 4:00 Close D-10 Date Time Activities Areas to be covered Comments June 26 9:00 Review of previous day’s work and today’s objectives 9:15 Video Law and justice—how can social change be achieved - through law or changing people’s attitudes Discussion 9:45 Small group work Agency Directives—Examine RFPs, SOWs. How to design pre-observations, gender sensitive indicators, gather sex￾disaggregated data, and do M&E from a gender perspective. Presentation and exercises in developing Agency documents, e.g., RFPs, SOWs (3). WIDTECH handout 10/99 10:30 Break 10:45 Small group work Continue small group work, preparing presentation for plenary 11:00 Plenary Presentations by groups 12:30 Lunch 1:30 Plenary Gender analysis and plan of action for RCSA—what does it tell us about past attention to gender and the possibilities for cross-sectoral work? 1:45 Small group work Examine cross-sectoral recommendations in Gender Analysis and Plan of Action for RCSA. What can be done now? Analysis teams do small group work (4) 2:30 Break 2:45 Report out Groups share recommendations 3:30 Plenary Forward thinking—how to enhance RCSA’s institutional capacity to enhance gender integration into program portfolios and the new strategic plans? 4:00 Close Review personal objectives; handout evaluation form. D-11 Attachment 2: Gender Training Participants RCSA (Gaborone, Botswana), June 25-26, 2002 Regional legal advisors Office of Financial Management Michelle Godette Amr Elattar Kim Robinson Contracts SO1 D&G Hosanna Agedew Ozias Tungwarara Beatrice Diah Tim Heffenserger SO2 EG Beatrice Lumande Cecilia Khupe Peggy Manthe Stanley Mupanomunda Martha Zhou Vincent Sandamuke Neil Price Randy Peterson Judith Nawa SO12 NRM PPDO Oliver Chapeyama Anthony Vodraska Deborah Kahatano Marcia Musisi-Nkambwe Morse Nanchengwa Godwin Punungwe Beatrice Siwila Valencia Msibi D-12 Attachment 3: Evaluation Form 1. What did you want to learn from the gender training? Check all that apply. __ General information __ The differences between WID and GAD __ Application of gender to a specific sector or sectors __ How to use gender in evaluation of contractor/recipient performance __ How to develop Agency documents (e.g., RFPs, SOWs) __ Why gender is important to development __ RCSA is a regional office, working at macro level—how to apply gender __ Other __________________________________________________ 2. Did you learn what you wanted or needed to learn? (Circle one) Yes No Some of what I expected Learned new things 3. What further information would you like to have on gender? __ I’ve learned enough to do my work __ I need more details ___ Reference materials ___ USAID examples ___ Additional training in: ___ Evaluation ___ Indicators ___ Analysis ___ Strategic planning ___ Other 4. Evaluation of the trainer (circle one): Trainer’s knowledge of subject matter Excellent Good Fair Poor Materials provided Excellent Good Fair Poor Amount of time spent in training Just right Not enough Too much Applicability to your work Very Somewhat Not at all 5. Other comments Thank you for taking the time to fill out the evaluation.